i Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 ii Related titles: Advanced power plant materials, design and technology (ISBN 978-1-84569-515-6) Fossil-fuel power plants generate the majority of the world’s power, but many plants are ageing and cannot meet rising global energy demands and increasingly stringent emissions criteria To ensure security and economy of supply, utilities are building a new generation of advanced power plant with increased output and environmental performance This book initially reviews improved plant designs for efficiency and fuel flexibility, including combinedcycle technology and utilisation of lower-grade feedstocks Coverage extends to advanced material and component use, and the incorporation of alternative energy conversion technology, such as hydrogen production Environmental and emissions performance issues round off the book Oxy-fuel combustion for power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2) capture (ISBN: 978-1-84569-671-9) Oxy-fuel combustion is a power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2) capture option for advanced power plant in which fuel is burnt in an oxygen-rich environment instead of in air This allows for a reduction in NOx and SOx emissions as well as producing a high-purity carbon dioxide (CO2) flue gas stream This high-purity CO2 stream allows for more efficient and economical capture, processing and sequestration This book critically reviews the fundamental principles, processes and technology of oxy-fuel combustion, including advanced concepts for its implementation Details of these and other Woodhead Publishing books can be obtained by: visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel and fax as above; e-mail: francis.dodds@woodheadpublishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 iii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology Volume 1: Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, transport and industrial applications Edited by M Mercedes Maroto-Valer CRC Press Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC Woodhead publishing limited Oxford Cambridge New Delhi © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 iv Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the author nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-533-0 (book) Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-957-4 (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 978-1-4398-3099-4 CRC Press order number: N10185 The publishers’ policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publishers ensure that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. Cover image © BCS Creative, 88–90 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK, www.bcscreative.co.uk Typeset by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, India Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 v Contents Contributor contact details xiii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xvii Foreword by Lord Oxburgh xix Overview of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology S Bouzalakos and M Mercedes Maroto-Valer, University of Nottingham, UK 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Introduction Greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change Carbon management and stabilisation routes Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and transport technology Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) storage and utilisation technology Future trends Sources of further information and advice Acknowledgements References 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1 11 17 19 20 22 22 Part I Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage economics, regulation and planning Techno-economic analysis and modeling of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) technologies J Ogden and N Johnson, University of California Davis, USA 2.1 2.2 Introduction Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 27 27 31 vi Contents 2.3 2.4 2.5 Carbon dioxide (CO2) transport Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection Carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) system modeling Future trends References 56 59 61 Regulatory and social analysis for the legitimation and market formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technologies 64 H de Coninck, M de Best-Waldhober and H Groenenberg, Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN), the Netherlands 3.1 3.2 Introduction Technological maturity and the carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) innovation system Legitimation: results and gaps in social scientific research regarding public perception and participation Market formation and direction of search: an enabling regulatory framework for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) in the EU Implementation outlook for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS) technologies Sources of further information and advice References 86 88 88 Energy supply planning for the introduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture technologies 93 2.6 2.7 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 36 44 64 67 74 80 A Elkamel, H Mirzaesmaeeli, E Croiset and P L Douglas, University of Waterloo, Canada The emerging energy challenge and a case from Ontario, Canada Overview of supply technologies and carbon capture and storage Future trends Energy conservation strategy Planning model Illustrative case study Conclusions References © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 93 98 105 113 115 124 149 151 Contents vii Part II Post- and pre-combustion processes and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in power plants 155 Advanced absorption processes and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in power plants U Desideri, Università degli Studi di Perugia, Italy 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Introduction Absorption processes Description of the technology Advancements in the technologies Advantages and disadvantages Applications and future trends Conclusions References 155 156 161 166 170 172 172 180 Advanced adsorption processes and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in power plants 183 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 Introduction Mesoporous and microporous adsorbents Functionalised sorbents Regenerable sorbents Sources of further information and advice Conclusions References 183 184 186 192 197 197 198 Advanced membrane separation processes and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in power plants 203 A Basile and A Iulianelli, Italian National Research Council, Italy, F Gallucci, University of Twente, the Netherlands, P Morrone, University of Calabria, Italy 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 Introduction Cryogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) capture Performance of membrane systems Carbon dioxide (CO2) membrane materials and design Membrane modules Comparing membrane modules Design for power plant integration Cost considerations Future trends and conclusions Sources of further information and advice References R M Davidson, IEA Clean Coal Centre, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 203 208 213 216 221 223 225 232 234 236 238 viii Contents 243 Gasification processes and synthesis gas treatment technologies for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture C Higman, Higman Consulting GmbH, Germany 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 Introduction Basic principles Applications Building blocks for complete systems Power plant as an example for a complete system Advantages and limitations Future trends Sources of further information and advice References 243 244 258 261 270 273 276 277 278 Part III Advanced combustion processes and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in power plants 283 Oxyfuel combustion systems and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in power plants P Mathieu, University of Liège, Belgium 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Introduction Basic principles of oxyfuel combustion Technologies and potential applications Advantages and limitations Future trends References 283 285 287 307 313 315 10 Advanced oxygen production systems for power plants with integrated carbon dioxide (CO2) capture 320 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 S C Kluiters, R W van den Brink and W G Haije, Energy research Centre of the Netherlands, the Netherlands Introduction Technologies for air separation Oxygen selective membrane technology for oxyfuel power plants Power generation systems integrated with oxygen selective membrane (OSM) units Advantages and limitations Future trends Sources of further information and advice Conclusions References © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 320 322 326 331 347 352 352 353 354 Contents 11 Chemical-looping combustion systems and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture in power plants E J Anthony, CANMET Energy Technology Centre-Ottawa, Canada 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Introduction Basic principles Technologies and potential applications Advantages and limitations of chemical-looping combustion (CLC) for natural gas and syngas 11.5 Hydrogen manufacture using chemical-looping combustion (CLC) 11.6 The use of chemical-looping combustion (CLC) technology with solid fuels 11.7 The CaS–CaSO4 system 11.8 Future trends 11.9 Sources of further information and advice 11.10 References ix 358 358 359 362 364 366 368 371 373 374 374 Part IV Carbon dioxide (CO2) compression, transport and injection processes and technology 12 Gas purification, compression and liquefaction processes and technology for carbon dioxide (CO2) transport A Aspelund, The Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway 12.1 12.2 12.3 Introduction Selection of transport pressures Carbon dioxide (CO2) quality recommendations for transport in pipelines and by ship 12.4 Overview and basic building blocks in carbon dioxide (CO2) transport processes 12.5 Sensitivity analysis 12.6 The interface between capture and transport 12.7 Ship to pipeline and pipeline to ship processes 12.8 Discussion 12.9 Future trends and future work 12.10 Conclusions 12.11 Acknowledgements 12.12 References © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 383 383 385 386 387 395 400 402 403 404 405 405 405 524 Index BLUE MAP Scenarios, 59 boilers oxyfuel combustion, 289–93 potential applications, 293 Rankine cycles with indirect heating, 289 tests on oxyfuel combustion in a coalfired boiler, 289–93 application to fluidised beds, 291 circulating fluidised bed with CO2 recirculation, 292 CO2 purification, 290–1 retrofit and efficiencies, 291–3 booster stations, 425 Borehole Audio Tracer Survey, 460 Boudouard reaction, 501 Brayton cycles, 287, 288, 307 bridging technology, 88 brownmillerite, 327 bubbling fluidised bed, 372 building proximity distance, 428 bulk diffusion, 195 BWRS equation see Benedict–Webb– Rubin–Starling equation CaCO3–CaO cycle, 371 calcination, 477 cycle, 193 calcium carbonate, 485 calcium hydroxide, 454 calcium silicate hydrate, 454 CANada Deuterium Uranium reactor technology, 98 CANDU 6, 134 capacity constraint, 120, 121, 122 CAPEX, 392, 399 capillary module, 222 capital cost, 39, 40 capture cost, 171 capture ready, 312 carbon-based adsorbents, 184–5 carbon capture technologies, 102 carbon dioxide absorption chemical solvents characteristics, 157 rate in amine-based solvents, 168 rate in amine blends, 169 basic building blocks in transport processes, 387–95 capture processes and technologies in power plants, 15 compression, transport and injection processes and technologies, 16 concrete accelerated curing, 479–86 density as function of pressure, 385 equations of state, 413 equilibrium partial pressure, 169 EU Directive for geological storage, 81–3 expansion, 393 from cement plants, 472–8 gas composition oxyfuel capture, 412 post-combustion capture, 411 pre-combustion capture, 412 geological sequestration, 17 injection processes and technology, 435–62 phase diagram oxyfuel type capture CO2 quality streams, 414 pure CO2, 410 phase properties, 409–13 product stream, 393–5 pure CO2 properties, 409–10 quality recommendations for transport, 386–7 pipeline, 388 ship, 388 recompression distance, pressure and temperature gradient along the pipe, 418 stream composition, 82 terrestrial and ocean sequestration, 18 transport stream composition, 410–12 utilisation, 511 carbon dioxide capture, 28, 31–6 advanced absorption processes and technology, 155–79 absorption processes, 156–61 absorption stripper system scheme, 162 advantages and disadvantages, 170–1 amine-based technology, 160 applications and future trends, 172 chemical solvents characteristics, 157 CO2 equilibrium partial pressure, 169 CO2-H2O-amine phase equilibrium, 166 estimated capture costs comparison, 171 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index expected cost for large-scale plants, 172 post-combustion maturity, 179 R&D areas for different capture technologies, 173–4 solution pH and equilibrium CO2 loading, 166 solvents heat of reaction, latent heat of vaporisation and reaction rates constants, 165 technology advancements, 166–70 technology description, 161–5 trays for methyldiethanolamine activators, 167 advanced adsorption processes and technology, 183–98 advanced membrane separation processes and technology, 203–36 capillary module, 222 CO2/N2 selectivity vs CO2 permeability, 215 CO2 permeate concentration, 228, 230 CO2 recovery ratio vs stage cut, 228 comparing membrane modules, 223, 225 cost considerations, 230–4 cryogenic CO2 capture, 206–13 current and emerging technologies, 235 feed mixture concentration, 233 frosting temperatures in flue gases, 212 future trends and conclusions, 234–6 hollow fibre module, 223 inorganic membranes main characteristics, 209–11 membrane costs as function of pressure, 233 membrane equipment configuration, 225 membrane modules, 221–3 membrane properties, 231 membrane systems performance, 213–16 permeate concentration vs CO2 recovery fraction, 232 power plant integration design, 225–9 principles, 204 525 process overview, 207–8 Robeson’s curve for CO2/CH4 separation, 215 spiral wound module, 224 advanced oxygen production systems for power plants, 320–54 advantages and limitations, 347, 351–2 air separation technologies, 322–6 future trends, 352 OSM technology for oxyfuel power plants, 326–31 power generation systems integrated with OSM units, 331–47 chemical looping combustion systems and technology in power plants, 358–74 basic principles, 359–62 technologies and potential applications, 362–4 CLC systems and technology in power plants advantages and limitations for natural gas and syngas, 364–6 CaS–CaSO4 system, 371–2 future trends, 373–4 hydrogen manufacture, 366–8 use with solid fuels, 368–71 economic and operational parameters coal-power plants, 127 IGCC power units, 132 long term out-of-province hydroelectric imports, 135 natural gas power plants, 128 NGCC power plants, 133 nuclear power units, 130, 134 pulverised coal power plants, 131 energy supply planning, 93–151 Canada’s emission trend and Kyoto’s emission target, 94 emerging energy challenge and a case from Ontario, Canada, 93–7 energy conservation strategy, 113–15 functionalised sorbents, 186–92 alumina supported, 189–90 carbon supported, 187–8 glass fibre supported, 190 polymer and resin supported, 187 porous crystals, 191 silica supported, 188–9 templated sorbents, 191–2 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 526 Index xerogel supported, 190–1 zeolite supported, 190 future trends, 105–13 coal price forecast, 114 electricity demand forecast, 105–8 forecasted peak and energy demand, 107 fuel prices forecast, 108 load-duration curve linear approximation, 106 natural gas price forecast, 112 typical load-duration curve, 105 gasification processes and synthesis gas treatment, 243–77 advantages and limitations, 273–6 applications, 259–61 basic principles, 244–58 building blocks for complete systems, 261–70 future trends, 276–7 power plant as an example for a complete system, 270–3 illustrative case study, 124–50 annual CO2 emission, 138 annual cost of electricity, 148 case study results, 135–50 coal power plants fuel-switched to natural gas, 138 data, 125–35 electricity production generated to meet base-load demand, 144 electricity production generated to meet peak-load demand, 145 electricity sector annual expenditure, 146 entire fleet annual CO2 emissions, 149 estimated refurbishment cost for nuclear units, 128 new power stations construction, 136 nuclear units capacity profile, 129 percent of electricity production, 144 power allocated to meet base-load demand, 140 power allocated to meet peak-load demand, 141 total electricity production, 142 total expenditure, 147 total power allocated from each supply technology, 137 total power allocation, 140 membrane materials and design, 216–21 CO2 membrane gas absorption principle, 220 facilitated transport membranes, 219 hybrid membranes, 218–19 membrane contactors, 220–1 mixed-matrix membranes, 218 polymeric membranes performance, 217 specific surface area of contactors, 220 mesoporous and microporous adsorbents, 184–6 carbon-based, 184–5 hydrotalcites, 185–6 porous crystals, 186 zeolites, 185 Ontario current installed capacity, 103 current installed generation capacity, 94 demand growth and generating capacity portfolio, 96 existing coal-fired power plants, 105 forecasted annual base-load demand, 111 forecasted annual energy demand, 109 forecasted annual peak demand, 110 operational and out-of-service nuclear units, 104 oxyfuel combustion systems and technology in power plants, 283–315 advantages and limitations, 307–12 basic principles, 285 future trends, 313–15 technologies and potential applications, 287–307 planning model, 115–24 construction lead time constraint sample matrix, 121 indices, sets, variables, and parameters, 117 model formulation, 116 regenerable sorbents, 192–6 carbonation/calcination cycle schematic, 193 natural minerals, 192–5 synthetic, 195–6 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index supply technologies and carbon capture and storage, 98–105 carbon dioxide capture and storage, 101–5 comparison of different technologies, 100–1 supply technologies, 98–101 carbon dioxide capture and sequestration, 243 carbon dioxide capture and storage, 1–20, 97, 383, 408 carbon dioxide capture, 31–6 economics of fossil energy plants, 32 electric power plants characteristics, 33 electricity cost, 36 emission rates and costs associated with power plants, 36 plant level modelling, 32 pre-combustion capture options, 32 processes, 31 production of hydrogen and other fuels, 35–6 carbon dioxide injection, 44–56 aquifer and injection parameters, 46 for storage only, 45–50 injection site design, 45 input parameter ranges, 51 levelised costs sensitivity to various parameters, 52 oil fields reservoir characteristics and levelised cost, 54 reservoir characteristics, 52 carbon dioxide transport, 36–44 actual and calculated pipeline diameter, 39 cost analysis reference parameters, 43 electricity cost from fossil power plants, 37 pipeline and ship costs, 44 pipeline and ship transport costs for offshore injection, 43–4 pipeline transport, 37–40 ship transport, 41–2 carbon management and stabilisation routes, 8–11 CCS systems schematic diagram, 10 stabilisation wedges concept for reducing carbon emissions, 11 527 total cost of early commercial projects, 15 cement and concrete industry, 469–88 accelerated CO2 curing of concrete, 479–86 basic principles, 470–2 CO2 capture from cement plants, 472–8 future trends, 487–8 coal-based hydrogen system build-out scenario, 58 optimisation, 58 energy supply planning, 101–5 carbon capture technologies, 102 Ontario’s current energy mix, 103–5 future trends, 19–20 general system set up oxyfuel systems with CCS, 333 oxygen selective membrane systems, 334 greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change, 2–8 average annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations, 4–5 carbon dioxide intensity by region and country 1980-2030, EU-15 CO2 emissions 2006, global average air and ocean temperatures, rising global average sea levels and melting of sea-ice, implementation in process industries including combustion, 504 iron and steel industry, 492–518 abatement perspectives, 515–17 CO2 capture technologies, 504–9 CO2 storage, 509–15 steel sector, 503–4 steel sector CO2 emissions, 493–7 strategies to control CO2 emissions, 497–503 legitimation: results and gaps, 74–80 current status, 75–7 knowledge gaps, 78–80 main arguments and misconceptions, 77–8 legitimation and market formation regulatory and social analysis, 64–88 implementation outlook, 86–8 technological innovation system functions, 66 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 528 Index market formation and direction of search, 80–6 EU and CCS market formation, 86 financing demonstrations, 83 towards mass markets, 84–5 projects in EU, 175–8 reservoir characteristics baseline case and at three depths, 52 oil fields, 54 primary coalbed methane resins, 55 safety regulation, 80–3 EU directive for the geological storage of CO2, 81–3 international frameworks, 81 techno-economic analysis and modelling, 27–61 coal-based hydrogen system optimisation, 58 component level engineering/ economic models, 30 costs range for CCS system components, 57 fossil energy system with CCS, 29 future trends, 59–61 reduction in CO2 emissions, 60 system modelling, 56–9 technological maturity and innovation system, 67–73 economic incentives, 69 stages of maturity, 68 technological innovation system, 70–3 technological maturity, 67 transport process, 389 transport technology development and innovation, 11–17 CCS component technologies, 12 CO2 compression, transport and injection processes and technology, 16 economics, regulation and planning, 14–15 global CCS projects, 13 industrial applications, 16–17 processes and technologies in power plants, 15–16 utilisation technology development and innovation, 17–19 advanced concepts, 18–19 carbon dioxide geological sequestration, 17 maximising and verifying storage in underground reservoirs, 17–18 terrestrial and ocean sequestration and environmental impacts, 18 carbon dioxide injection, 45–50 analogues for CO2 storage and best practices from other sectors, 437–8 aquifer and injection parameters, 46 controlling parameters for injectivity, 441–9 casing shear schematic illustration, 457–8 injection well pressure and reservoir constraints, 447–9 injectivity loss, 443–5 permeability, 441–3 pressure development at the end of injection cycle, 442 rock–cement–casing interfaces including stresses around wellbore, 456 wellbore design, 445–7 deep saline aquifers, 46 site characterisation costs, 46–7 surface equipment, 47–8 well drilling costs, 47 depleted gas reservoirs, 49–50 different storage formations, 449–51 depleted oil and gas fields, 450 hydro-mechanical impact, 451 injection in coal seams, 450–1 saline formations, 449 enhanced fossil fuel recovery, 50–6 enhanced coalbed methane, 54–6 enhanced gas recovery, 51–2 enhanced oil recovery, 53–4 site design, 50 field operations, 451–3 enhanced oil recovery and CO2 reinjection, 453 Sleipner CO2 storage site simplified illustration, 452 for storage only, 45–50 future trends, 462 injection site design, 45 injection well technologies, 438–41 input parameter ranges, 51 levelised cost, 48 levelised costs sensitivity to various parameters, 52 oil fields reservoir characteristics and levelised cost, 54 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index processes and technology, 435–62 reservoir characteristics, 52 Salah Gas Project schematic, 447 technologies for monitoring injection well integrity, 459–62 injection rates and pressures, 461 injection well integrity, 459–61 microseismic monitoring, 461–2 underground fluid injection, 436 well integrity, 453–9 casing shear failure, 456–8 cement degradation, 454–5 corrosion, 458–9 debonding, 455–6 induced seismic events, 453–4 carbon dioxide looping, 192 carbon dioxide recovery commercial plants, 159 historical development, 160 ratio vs stage cut for three different flow mode patterns, 228 carbon dioxide sequestration, 102 carbon dioxide transport energy requirements for six transport processes as function of feed gas pressure, 398 as function of feed gas volatile content, 399 as function of temperature for heat rejection, 399 gas purification, compression and liquefaction processes and technology, 383–405 future trends and future work, 404 interface between capture and transport, 400–2 quality recommendations for pipelines and ship transport, 386–7 sensitivity analysis, 395–400 ship to pipeline and pipeline to ship processes, 402–3 transport pressures selection, 385–6 infrastructure and pipeline technology, 408–30 CO2 phase properties, 409–13 future trends and future work, 429 pipeline transport, 414–23 ship transport, 423–5 transport economics, 425 large-scale transport infrastructure, 425–8 529 cumulative plot of emissions with sources, 426 pipelines offshore, 427 regulations, 427–8 overview and building blocks in processes, 387–95 carbon dioxide expansion, 393 carbon dioxide product stream, 393–5 compression and cooling, 390–1 condensation, 392 pumping, 392 unwanted components removal, 392 volatile gases removal, 393 water and other liquids removal in vapour–liquid separator drums, 391 water removal by adsorption, 391–2 process in CCS chain, 389 process superstructure, 394 recycling combustibles back into the capture process, 401 transport processes energy requirements, 395 carbon havens, 516 carbon leakage, 516 carbon monoxide shift, 265–7 three-stage system, 266 carbon supported sorbents, 187–8 carbon tax, 85 carbonation cycle, 193 process, 480–2 casing shear, 456–8 cement, 471 cement and concrete industry accelerated CO2 curing of concrete, 479–86 carbonation process, 480–2 chemical reactions, 480 critical operational parameters, 482–3 pore structure changes with calcium carbonate deposition, 484 potential for concrete direct carbonation curing using flue gases, 485 potential limitations to carbon dioxide uptake, 483–4 sequential steps involved, 481 waste cement materials CO2 curing, 485–6 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 530 Index CCS technology, 469–88 basic principles, 470–2 future trends, 487–8 CO2 capture from cement plants, 472–8 isolated calcination, 477–8 oxygen combustion, 475–7 post-combustion capture, 474–5 modern pre-heater/pre-calciner dry rotary kiln layout, 473 various components associated with cement and concrete use, 471 cement bond logs, 459 cement job parameters, 459 cement kiln dust, 474, 485 Central Basin Pipeline, 416 ceramic autothermal recovery, 322, 325 chemical-looping combustion, 192, 303, 322, 324–5, 360 advantages and limitations for natural gas and syngas, 364–6 basic principles, 359–62 carbon dioxide capture in power plants, 358–74 CaS–CaSO4 system, 371–2 cycle, 287, 289 future trends, 373–4 hydrogen manufacture, 366–8 natural gas and light hydrocarbons ATR, 367–8 metal oxide looping cycle, 360 solid fuels combustion process schematic, 372 system layout, 304 technologies and potential applications, 362–4 Grace 10 kW chemical-looping reactor, 363 use with solid fuels, 368–71 chemical-looping combustor, 362 chemical looping reforming, 236 chemical-looping with oxygen uncoupling, 370 chemisorption, 505 Chinese bituminous coal, 369 chromium steel, 441 cladding, 419 Clean Energy Systems cycle, 287, 293 clean gas shift, 267 Climate Change Act, clinker, 469, 470 CLOU see chemical-looping with oxygen uncoupling CO2 Breakthrough Program, 502 CO2 prevented emission recuperative advanced turbine energy cycle, 307 coal, 8, 99 plasticisation, 450 power, 139 power plants, 99, 100, 103, 105, 141 economic and operational parameters, 127 fuel-switched to natural gas, 138 power stations, 99, 100 CO2–ECBM technology, 452 cogeneration, 99, 100 CO2–H2O steam cycle, 341 cold flash gas, 393 Commission Directive 96/61/EC, 20 Commission Directive 85/337/EEC, 20 Compact Gasifier, 276 compression, 390–1 concrete, 469 condensation, 392 ConocoPhillips, 255 construction lead time, 120–2 sample matrix, 121 converter, 494 cooling, 390–1 COOPERATE see CO2 prevented emission recuperative advanced turbine energy cycle COREX process, 502 corrosion, 458–9, 462 Cortez pipeline, 416 COS hydrolysis, 267 CPLEX 10, 116 cryogenic air separation unit, 307, 323–4, 476 cryogenic CO2 capture, 206–13 cryogenic distillation, 287 daisy grid model, 515 debonding, 455–6 decarbonising, 499 Decew hydrostation, 130 deep saline aquifers, 46 density log data, 459 depositional process, 449 desulphurisation, 262 diagenetic process, 449 diethanolamine, 187 digitalised geophones, 461 direct reduced iron, 499 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index direct reduction process, 494, 495, 499 directional drilling system, 446 distillation, 393 dry feed system, 248 Dynamis project, 422 E-Gas, 252, 255, 256 ECBM see enhanced coal bed methane recovery ECN membranes, 329 Econamine process, 160 EE50, 115 EE100, 115 EE100 Plus Standards, 115 EIA’s AE2005, 108, 113 electric arc furnace route, 495 electrowinning process, 499 energy conservation strategy, 113–15 enhanced coal bed methane recovery, 17, 446, 450 enhanced oil recovery, 384, 408, 439, 446 entrained flow gasifiers, 247 entrepreneurial experimentation, 73 EOR see enhanced oil recovery ethylenediamine, 187 ETS see EU Emissions Trading Scheme EU 2003/87/EC, 84 EU Directive for Geological Storage of CO2, 81–3, 85 EU Emissions Trading Scheme, 69, 83 monitoring and reporting guidelines, 84–5 EU Energy and Climate Package, 84 EU Framework ENCAP project, 410 European ENCAP project, 297, 315 experienced-based approach, 115 experimental blast furnace, 506 facilitated transport membranes, 219 feed systems, 248 ferrite, 471 FeTiO3, 370 fixed bed gasifiers see moving bed gasifiers Flour Daniel Econamine process, 158 flue gas desulphurisation, 291 2-D Fluent model, 372 fluid bed gasifiers, 247 fly ash, 99, 188 fossil energy plants economics with carbon dioxide capture, 32–5 531 avoided cost of CO2 emissions, 35 CO2 capture cost, 35 cost of electricity, 34–5 plant capital investment cost, 32–4 fossil-fueled power plants, 15, 126 cost of electricity, 37 fossil fuels, fracture pressure, 447, 448 fuel prices forecast, 108 coal, 114 natural gas, 112, 113 fuel-selection, 122–3 functionalised sorbents, 186–92 Future Energy GSP see Siemens process gas reservoirs, 49–50 gas separation, 213 gas turbine technology, 277 gas turbines, 98 oxyfuel combustion, 296–300 cycles, 308–12 oxyfuel concepts comparison, 310, 312 post and pre-combustion capture and oxyfuel GT cycles, 311 with direct heating and externally generated oxygen, 296–300 Graz cycle, 299–300 Matiant cycle, 297–9 technology development, 297 with internally generated oxygen, 300–4 advanced zero emission plant, 300–2 AZEP cycle using MCM and HX, 302 chemical-looping combustion, 303 mixed ceramic membrane ionising oxygen, 301 gasification advantages and limitations, 273–6 availability, 275 capital requirements, 275–6 efficiency, 273–4 environmental impact, 274–5 and synthesis gas treatment for carbon dioxide capture, 243–77 future trends, 276–7 applications, 259–61 chemicals including synthetic fuels, 260 IGCC block flow diagram, 259 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 532 Index methanol plant block flow diagram, 260 polygeneration, 261 power, 259–60 basic principles, 244–58 chemistry and thermodynamics, 244–5 commercial processes, 252–8 definition, 244 process characteristics, 246 process realisation, 245–52 building blocks for complete systems, 261–70 air separation, 261 flows in natural gas and syngas-fired gas turbine, 268 gas turbine output, 269 MDEA flowsheet, 263 syngas- and hydrogen-fired combustion turbines, 268–70 syngas treatment, 261–7 three-stage CO shift system, 266 two-stage Selexol flowsheet, 264 cold gas efficiency, 249 commercial processes, 252–8 E-Gas, 255 ECUST, 257–8 GE energy, 253–4 Lurgi, 258 Shell and Prenflo technologies, 254–5 Siemens, 255–6 power plant, 270–3 combined cycle power plant, 273 gas generation, 271–3 IGCC block flow diagram with carbon dioxide capture, 271 raw gas analyses, 272 process realisation, 245–2 bed type, 245–8 Conoco Philips E-Gas gasifier, 256 feed preparation, 248 gasifier containment systems, 251 GE quench gasifier, 253 Lurgi dry bottom gasifier, 258 operating temperature, 248–9 oxidant, 249–50 primary gas cleaning, 252 primary syngas cooling, 250–1 reactor containment, 250 Shell coal gasification process, 254 Siemens SFG gasifier, 257 two-stage gasification, 252 syngas treatment, 261–7 acid gas removal, 262–5 carbon monoxide shift, 265–7 COS hydrolysis, 267 gasifier containment systems, 251 GE energy, 253–4 GE quench gasifier, 253 General Algebraic Modelling System, 116 General Electric J79 gas turbine, 296 geological storage, 81–3 geomechanical processes, 450 geophysical well integrity logs, 460 geostorage, 511–12, 514–15 glass fibre supported sorbents, 190 global climate change, 2–8 global warming potential, Grace 10 kW chemical-looping reactor, 363 Graz cycle, 287, 288, 299–300 power plant layout, 300 green hydrogen, 502 GreenGen, 14 greenhouse gas effect, 2, 307, 320, 486 greenhouse gas emissions, 2–8 greenhouse gases, 492–3 gypsum, 371, 471, 485 H2 Fleet Leader, 269 halite precipitation, 443–4 heat recovery steam generator, 288, 391 HEATEX, 162 hexagonal mesoporous silica, 188 high-pressure steam turbine, 295 high-temperature syngas desulphurisation process, 276 HIsarna process, 499, 501, 503, 508 schematics, 500 HIsmelt process, 499 hollow fibre module, 223 hybrid membranes, 218–19 hydrate, 423 hydroelectric power stations, 99–100, 101, 128, 130 hydrogen, 366–8 hydrogen delivery system, 59 Hydrogen Energy 390 MWe CCS/EOR, 254 hydrogen-fired combustion turbines, 269–70 hydrostatic pressure, 447 hydrotalcites, 185–6 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index 533 Hygensys, 236 HYSIS, 32 IGCC see integrated gasification combined cycle illmenite, 365 immobilised amine sorbents, 187 in-process capture, 515 IN-STRIP, 162 Independent Electricity System Operator, 106 injection rate, 45 injection well, 436 CO2 injection and well integrity, 453–9 casing shear failure, 456–8 cement degradation, 454–5 corrosion, 458–9 debonding, 455–6 induced seismic events, 453–4 integrity monitoring technologies, 459–62 injection rates and pressures, 461 injection well integrity, 459–61 microseismic monitoring, 461–2 pressure and reservoir constraints, 447–9 technologies, 438–41 simplified vertical CO2 injection well, 439 injectivity loss, 443–5 geochemical reaction products and effects, 444 halite precipitation, 443–4 impurities effects on injection stream, 444–5 mobilised fine particles, 444 Integrated Environmental Control Model, 130 integrated gasification combined cycle, 9, 100, 244, 270, 305, 323, 365 block flow diagram, 259 integrated steel mill, 493–4 simplified flow sheet, 495, 505 intermediate-pressure steam turbine, 295 ion diffusion, 195 ion transport membrane, 307, 321 Iron & Steel Association, 502 iron and steel industry carbon dioxide capture technologies, 504–9 mature CO2 capture technologies comparison, 510 principle of pressure swing adsorption CO2-scrubbing techniques, 507 vacuum pressure swing adsorption of Air Liquide, 506 carbon dioxide emissions, 493–7 ArcelorMittal Florange’s blast furnace skyline, 493 ISM simplified flow sheet, 495, 505 steel-making production routes, 496 carbon dioxide storage, 509–15 CO2 utilisation, 511 daisy grid model of CCS in Europe, 515 geological structures favourable for storage in Belgium, 514 geostorage, 511–12, 514–15 mineral sequestration, 509, 511 ocean storage, 509 resources and reserve concepts, 512 steel mills, 513 CCS technology, 492–518 and CO2 abatement perspectives, 515–17 for steel sector, 503–4 strategies to control CO2 emissions, 497–503 breakthrough technologies for cutting CO2 emissions, 498 HIsarna process schematics, 500 TGR–BF process schematics, 500 ULCORED process schematics, 501 isolated calcination, 477–8 schematic representation, 478 Japanese COURSE 50, 502, 508 Joule II project, 511 Joule Thomson effect, 418 JT-valve, 393 Kalinin Atomic Power Plant, 436 kerosene, 296 Kerr–McGee/ABB Lummus amine technology, 156 Kirovo-Chepetsk Chemical, 436 Kyoto protocol, 93 Lambton coal power plant, 139 large-scale fuel channel replacement, 103 LEANGAS, 162 LEANSOL, 162 legitimation, 73 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 534 Index defined, 74 market formation regulatory and social analysis, 64–88 implementation outlook, 86–8 technological innovation system functions, 66 results and gaps in social scientific research, 74–80 current status on public opinion, 75–7 knowledge gaps regarding public opinion and involvement, 78–80 main arguments and misconceptions, 77–8 light hydrocarbons, 296 auto thermal reforming, 367–8 limestone, 194–5 linearisation method, 119 liquefaction, 393 Liquefied Energy Chain, 404 liquefied natural gas, 404, 423, 424 liquefied petroleum gas, 423, 424 lithium zirconate, 196 LNC, 331 lock hopper system, 276 looping cycle, 359 low-pressure steam turbine, 295 low temperature frost evaporators, 212 Lurgi dry bottom gasifier, 248, 258 MARKAL, 31, 59 market formation, 71, 80–6 mass markets EU emissions trading scheme, 84 EU ETS monitoring and reporting guidelines, 84–5 Norway, 84–5 regulation for incentivising CCS, 84–5 Matiant cycle, 287, 288, 297–9, 305, 307 T–S diagram with regeneration and reheat, 299 zero emission gas turbine cycle scheme, 298 MCM-41, 189 membrane contactors, 220–1 membrane modules, 221–3 commercially available CO2-separation membrane modules, 226 conceptual scheme, 222 other parameters for design, 226 membrane separation, 234 advanced processes and technology for CO2 capture, 203–36 CO2 membrane materials and design, 216–21 cost considerations, 230–4 cryogenic carbon dioxide capture, 206, 212–13 design for power plant integration, 225–9 future trends, 234–6 membrane modules, 221–3, 223–5 membrane systems performance, 213–16 membrane wall, 250 mercury, 275 removal, 272 MESSAGE, 31 metal organic frameworks, 186 methane, 54–6 methyldiethanolamine, 263 micro turbine, 347 microseismic monitoring, 461–2 microseismicity, 453 Milano cycle, 307, 346 mineral sequestration, 509, 511 Mitsubishi, 251 Mitsubishi-Kansai technology, 158 mixed Brayton/Rankine cycle, 288, 299 mixed conducting membranes, 321, 327, 339 mixed-integer linear programming, 115, 116 mixed-integer non-linear programming, 97, 116 mixed ionic electronic conducting membranes, 321 mixed-matrix membranes, 218 MOF-177, 186 molecular basket, 189 molecular sieves, 185 monoethanolamine, 102, 156, 187, 205 Moody friction factor, 416, 417 moving bed gasifiers, 247 nanocasting, 191 natural gas auto thermal reforming, 367–8 CLC advantages and limitations, 364–6 power plants, 126 power stations, 98–9, 100 natural gas combined cycle, 231–3 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index power plants, 98, 100 natural gas-fired gas-steam combined cycles, 171 natural gas-fired gas turbines, 171 Near Zero Emission Coal, 14 NEMS, 31 NGCC see natural gas-fired gas-steam combined cycles NGGT see natural gas-fired gas turbines Ni-based oxygen carrier, 369 Ni/NiO system, 364, 369 Niagara Plant Group, 104 nitrogen, 323 nitrogen oxide emissions, 274–5 noise logs, 460 nominal pipe size, 38 non-porous membranes, 214 NORSK Hydro, 335, 339, 351 nuclear power, 103 plants, 100, 126, 128 stations, 98 ocean storage, 509 One-Step Reforming, 236 Ontario case study, 124–50 data, 125–35 existing power plants, 126–30 new power plants, 130–5 results, 135–50 coal power plants fuel-switched to natural gas, 138 economic analysis, 145–50 new construction, fuel switching, and CCS retrofit, 135 power allocation and electricity production, 139–45 Ontario Power Generation, 95 Oosterkamp and Ramsen quality specification, 411 OPEX, 392, 399 Ordinary Portland Cement, 471 OSM see oxygen selective membranes OSPAR CO2 guidelines, 82 overlaying, 419 oxidant, 249–50 oxycoal boilers, 307–8 Oxycoal–AC cycle, 307, 344, 345, 346 oxyfiring combustion, 359 oxyfuel combustion, 31, 320 advantages and limitations, 306–7 capture readiness, 312 oxycoal boilers, 307–8 535 oxyfuel combustion gas turbine cycles, 308–12 basic principles, 285 oxyfuel boiler with FGR fluid, 286 carbon dioxide capture in power plants, 283–315 circulating fluidised bed with CO2 recirculation, 292 future trends, 313–15 stack downwards, 284 technologies and potential applications, 287–307 boilers, 289–93 gas turbines, 296–300 gas turbines with internally generated oxygen, 300–4 IGCC, 305 other oxyfuel combustion cycles, 306–7 SOFC-CC, 305–6 steam turbine cycles with direct heating, 293–6 systems classification, 287–9 technologies classification, 288 tests in a coal-fired boiler, 289–93 water cycle power plant layout, 294 oxyfuel combustion power cycles, 205 oxygen, 205 oxygen carrying capacity, 361 oxygen combustion, 475–7 oxygen production systems advantages and limitations, 347, 351–2 air separation technologies, 322–6 ceramic autothermal recovery process, 325 chemical-looping, 324–5 cryogenic air separation, 323–4 demands for zero-emission power plants, 322–3 oxygen selective membranes, 325–6 pressure and vacuum swing adsorption, 324 future trends, 352 OSM technology for oxyfuel power plants, 326–31 performance comparison systems, 349–50 power generation systems integrated with OSM units, 331–47 full oxidation in membrane unit, 335–6 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 536 Index partial oxidation in membrane unit, 336–9 partial oxidation power cycle, 338 post-oxidation in membrane unit, 346–7 without oxidation in membrane unit, 339–46 power plants with integrated carbon dioxide capture, 320–54 SOFC–GT post-oxidation power cycle, 348 oxygen selective membranes, 321, 322, 325–6 technology for oxyfuel power plants, 326–31 ABO3-d and A2BO4 + d structures, 327 damaged perovskite membrane during fabrication, 330 MIEC membrane, 328 SCFC oxygen flux, 331 sinter shrinkage, weight loss and heat evolution during sintering, 329 oxygen transport membrane, 309, 321 Peng–Robinson equation, 413, 417 periodic cement bond logs, 459 physical washes, 263 physisorption, 505 Pipeline Safety Regulations, 427 pipeline transport, 37–40, 385–6, 414–23 CO2 on recompression distance, pressure and temperature gradient along the pipe, 418 CO2 quality recommendations, 388 corrosion and hydrate formation, 422–3 costs for offshore injection, 43–4 design parameters, 38 flow equations, 415–17 fracture, 419–22 Battelle TCM for methane, 421 materials, 419 pipeline cost, 39–40 levelised cost for onshore pipeline transport, 41 offshore, 40 onshore, 39–40 onshore vs offshore, 41 pipeline design, 37–8 actual vs calculated diameters, 38 offshore pipeline design, 39 pipeline hydraulics, 417–19 process P1, 396 ship to pipeline and pipeline to ship processes, 402–3 plant capital investment cost, 32–4 polyethyleneimine, 187 polygeneration, 261 poor sweep, 447 porous crystals, 186, 191 porous membranes, 214 Portland cement, 455 POSCO, 502 post-combustion capture technology, 31, 102, 204–5, 291, 310, 320–1, 474–5 power generation systems, 331–47 power plants adsorption processes and technology for CO2 capture, 183–98 advanced absorption processes and technology for CO2 capture, 155–79 as an example for a complete system, 270–3 emission rates and costs with and without CO2 capture, 36 power stations, 120 PR equation see Peng–Robinson equation Praxair system, 347 pre-calciner kiln, 472 pre-combustion capture, 102, 205, 321 pre-combustion decarbonisation systems, 31, 347 pre-reduction furnace, 494, 495 Prenflo technologies, 254–5 pressure swing adsorption, 184, 322, 505 pressurised heavy water reactor, 98 pressurised thermogravimetric analyser, 365 primary syngas cooling, 250–1 PRISM technology, 324 public opinion, 74–80 current status of research on CCS, 75–7 awareness, 75–6 research issues, 76–7 pulverised coal-fired power generation systems, 313 pumping, 392 pyroelectrolysis, 499 Rankine cycle, 287, 288, 303, 307 with indirect heating, 289 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index raw gas shift, 266–7, 272 raw meal, 470 reactor containment, 250 Rectisol, 265, 305, 392, 400 Redox Technologies, 236 refractory lining, 250 regenerable sorbents, 192–6 natural minerals, 192–5 improving calcium sorbent performance, 195 limestone deactivation mechanism, 194–5 synthetic sorbents, 195–6 regeneration energy, 161 regenerative adsorption columns, 391 Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships, 14 reservoirs, 17–18 characteristics, 52 resource mobilisation, 71 R.H Saunders hydro station, 130 RICHGAS, 161 Richter scale, 461 rock shear, 457 rule of thumb method, 50 safe injection pressure, 448 SAIL, 502–3 Salah–Algeria project, 439, 446 San Juan Basin, 55 saturation pressure, 421 SBA-15, 188 SCADA data, 417 SCF, 327 SCFC, 331 SCGP see Shell coal gasification process Selexol, 263, 305, 400 two-stage Selexol flowsheet, 264 semi-closed oxyfuel cycle, 287 semi-pressurised ship, 386, 423–4 sequestration, 18, 359 Sheep Mountain Pipeline, 419 Shell coal gasification process, 254 Shell partial quench technology, 255 Shell technologies, 252, 254–5 Shell’s Pernis refinery, 261 ship transport, 41–2, 423–5 advantage over pipelines, 424–5 CO2 quality recommendations, 388 costs, 42 offshore injection, 43–4 levelised cost, 43 537 process S1, 397 ship to pipeline and pipeline to ship processes, 402–3 transport system design, 42 Siemens process, 255–6 Siemens SFG gasifier, 257 Siemens SGT5-4000F gas turbine, 337, 341 silica supported sorbents, 188–9 simple cycle gas turbines, 98, 99 sintering, 477 slag removal, 272 Sleipner–Norway project, 439, 440, 449, 452 Smelting Reduction Process, 492, 499 Snövhit pipeline, 428 Soave–Redlich–Kwong equation, 413 solid fuels chemical-looping process schematic for combustion, 372 CLC technology, 368–71 solid oxide fuel cell, 299, 305–6, 322 as combustion chamber in gas turbine cycle, 306 solvent flow rate, 164 Sonar Log, 460 Sorb KX35, 196 Sorb NX30, 196 sorbents functionalised, 186–92 alumina supported, 189–90 carbon supported, 187–8 glass fibre supported, 190 polymer and resin supported, 187 porous crystals, 191 silica supported, 188–9 templated, 191–2 xerogel supported, 190–1 zeolite supported, 190 regenerable, 192–6 natural minerals, 192–5 synthetic, 195–6 sound survey, 460 South African bituminous coal, 369 spiral wound module, 224 SRK equation see Soave–Redlich–Kwong equation stabilisation wedges, 9, 11 stage cut, 226, 227 steam turbine, 98 cycles with direct heating, 293–6 sted, 493 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 538 Index steel, 492 steel mills, 513 Steinour formula, 483 STRIPPER, 161, 162 sublimation, 206 sulphur emissions, 274 sulphur recovery, 272–3 Summit Power 300 MWe, 256 supercritical CO2, 419, 455 supply-push case, 108 syngas, 99, 244, 305 CLC advantages and limitations, 364–6 cooling, 254 syngas-fired combustion turbines, 268–9 syngas treatment, 261–7 acid gas removal, 262–5 chemical and solvent processes, 263 physical washes, 263 Rectisol, 265 Selexol, 263 carbon monoxide shift, 265–7 clean gas shift, 267 raw gas shift, 266–7 COS hydrolysis, 267 mercury removal, 267 tanker trucks, 36 TCM see Battelle Two–Curve Model techno-vert case, 108, 113 technological innovation system, 65, 70–3 functions, 66, 72–3 structural elements, 70 temperature logs, 460 templated sorbents, 191–2 templating, 191 tetraethylenepentamine, 187 Texaco coal gasifier, 253 see also GE Energy TGR-BF process see top gas recycling blast furnace process thermal decomposition, 475 top gas recycling blast furnace process, 499 schematics, 500 transport economics, 425 tubular membranes, 328 two electrolysis variants, 499 ULCOLYSIS, 499 ULCORED process, 492, 495, 503, 508 schematics, 501 ULCOS Program see Ultra Low CO2 Steelmaking Program ULCOWIN, 499 Ultra Low CO2 Steelmaking Program, 498, 506 underground fluid injection, 436 Underground Injection Control Program, 446 vacuum pressure swing adsorption, 505 vacuum swing adsorption, 322 vapour–liquid separator drums, 391 well drilling costs, 47 Western Research Institute, 325 wet feed system, 248 wind power plants, 100 wuesite, 367 xerogel, 190–1 xerogel supported sorbents, 190–1 ZEITMOP see zero emission ion transport membrane oxygen power zeolite supported sorbents, 190 zeolite 13X, 190 zeolites, 185 ZEPP see zero emission power plants zero CO2 emission, 285 zero emission ion transport membrane oxygen power cycle, 341, 343, 344 zero emission power plants, 296–7 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010