i Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 ii Related titles: Advanced power plant materials, design and technology (ISBN 978-1-84569-515-6) Fossil-fuel power plants generate the majority of the world’s power, but many plants are ageing and cannot meet rising global energy demands and increasingly stringent emissions criteria To ensure security and economy of supply, utilities are building a new generation of advanced power plant with increased output and environmental performance This book initially reviews improved plant designs for efficiency and fuel flexibility, including combinedcycle technology and utilisation of lower-grade feedstocks Coverage extends to advanced material and component use, and the incorporation of alternative energy conversion technology, such as hydrogen production Environmental and emissions performance issues round off the book Oxy-fuel combustion for power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2) capture (ISBN: 978-1-84569-671-9) Oxy-fuel combustion is a power generation and carbon dioxide (CO2) capture option for advanced power plant in which fuel is burnt in an oxygen-rich environment instead of in air This allows for a reduction in NOx and SOx emissions as well as producing a high-purity carbon dioxide (CO2) flue gas stream This high-purity CO2 stream allows for more efficient and economical capture, processing and sequestration This book critically reviews the fundamental principles, processes and technology of oxy-fuel combustion, including advanced concepts for its implementation Details of these and other Woodhead Publishing books can be obtained by: visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK) If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel and fax as above; e-mail: francis.dodds@woodheadpublishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 iii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 16 Developments and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology Volume 2: Carbon dioxide (CO2) storage and utilisation Edited by M Mercedes Maroto-Valer CRC Press Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC Woodhead publishing limited Oxford Cambridge New Delhi © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 iv Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publishers cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the author nor the publishers, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-797-6 (book) Woodhead Publishing ISBN 978-1-84569-958-1 (e-book) CRC Press ISBN 978-1-4398-3101-4 CRC Press order number: N10186 The publishers’ policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acidfree and elemental chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publishers ensure that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. Cover image © BCS Creative, 88–90 North Sherwood Street, Nottingham NG1 4EE, UK, www.bcscreative.co.uk Typeset by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, India Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 v Contents Contributor contact details xiii Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy xvii Foreword by Lord Oxburgh xix Overview of carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage technology S Bouzalakos and M Mercedes Maroto-Valer, University of Nottingham, UK 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Introduction Greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change Carbon management and stabilisation routes Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and transport technology Development and innovation in carbon dioxide (CO2) storage and utilisation technology Future trends Sources of further information and advice Acknowledgements References 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1 11 17 19 20 22 22 Part I Geological sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) 27 Screening and selection criteria, and characterisation techniques for the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) S Bachu, Alberta Innovates – Technology Futures, Canada 2.1 2.2 2.3 Introduction Screening for storage suitability and site selection Site characterisation 27 28 43 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 vi Contents 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Estimation of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage capacity Future trends Sources of further information and advice References 47 51 52 53 Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration in deep saline aquifers and formations 57 R J Rosenbauer and B Thomas, US Geological Survey, USA 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Introduction Saline aquifers Trapping mechanisms Modeling of carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration pilot sites Future trends Conclusions Acknowledgements References Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration in oil and gas reservoirs and use for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) B Vega and A.R Kovscek, Stanford University, USA 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction Carbon dioxide (CO2) enhanced recovery mechanisms Co-optimization of enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and carbon storage Future trends: geologic storage in tight rocks Summary and conclusions Sources of further information and advice References 116 118 122 123 124 Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration in unmineable coal seams and use for enhanced coalbed methane recovery (ECBM) 127 M Mazzotti and Ronny Pini, ETH Zurich, Switzerland, G Storti, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, and L Burlini, ETH Zurich, Switzerland 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Introduction Storage in unmineable coal seams Enhanced coalbed methane recovery Competitive adsorption Swelling and permeability Mass transfer and enhanced coalbed methane (ECBM) modeling 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 57 58 64 74 80 86 88 88 88 104 104 109 127 128 129 131 139 148 Contents 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 Field tests Future trends Sources of further information and advice References vii 151 155 158 159 Part II Maximising and verifying carbon dioxide (CO2) storage in underground reservoirs Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection design to maximise underground reservoir storage and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) R Qi, T.C LaForce and M.J Blunt, Imperial College London, UK 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 Carbon storage in geological formations Experiments of capillary trapping Field-scale design of storage in aquifers Storage in oilfields Discussion and conclusions Future trends Sources of further information and advice Acknowledgements References 169 172 175 179 180 181 181 182 182 Capillary seals for trapping carbon dioxide (CO2) in underground reservoirs 185 T.A Meckel, The University of Texas at Austin, USA 7.1 7.2 Introduction Calculations of anticipated capillary pressures and seal capacities Monte Carlo predictions of capillary pressure within a reservoir seal Discussion Conclusions Future trends Sources of further information and advice Acknowledgements References 193 195 198 199 199 200 200 Measurement and monitoring technologies for verification of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage in underground reservoirs 203 R.A Chadwick, British Geological Survey, UK 8.1 Introduction 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 169 185 188 203 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 viii Contents 8.2 8.3 Background to storage site monitoring Detection and measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the subsurface Detection and measurement of carbon dioxide (CO2) leakage to surface Conclusions and future trends Sources of further information and advice References 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 Mathematical modeling of the long-term safety of carbon dioxide (CO2) storage in underground reservoirs K Pruess, J Birkholzer and Q Zhou, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, University of California, USA 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Introduction Coupled processes: a challenge for mathematical models Ilustrative modeling applications Conclusions Acknowledgements References 204 207 225 233 235 235 240 240 243 244 259 261 261 Part III Terrestrial and ocean sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) and environmental impacts 10 Terrestrial sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) 271 R Lal, The Ohio State University, USA 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Introduction The terrestrial pool and its role in the global carbon cycle Emissions from agricultural versus other activities Basic principles of carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems 10.5 Potential of terrestrial sequestration 10.6 Challenges of terrestrial sequestration 10.7 Extrapolation 10.8 Soil and terrestrial carbon as indicators of climate change 10.9 Conclusions 10.10 References 271 273 276 11 279 290 291 295 296 297 298 Ocean sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) 304 D Golomb and S Pennell, University of Massachusetts Lowell, USA 11.1 11.2 Introduction History of carbon dioxide (CO2) deep ocean storage proposals 304 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 305 Contents Legal constraints of deep ocean storage of carbon dioxide (CO2) 11.4 Sources of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) for ocean storage 11.5 Ocean structure 11.6 Properties of carbon dioxide (CO2) 11.7 Modeling of carbon dioxide (CO2) release 11.8 Injection of carbon dioxide, water and pulverized limestone (CO2/H2O/CaCO3) emulsion 11.9 Future trends 11.10 Conclusions 11.11 Sources of further information and advice 11.12 References ix 11.3 12 307 308 309 311 312 313 318 320 320 321 324 Environmental risks and impacts of carbon dioxide (CO2) leakage in terrestrial ecosystems M D Steven, K L Smith and J J Colls, University of Nottingham, UK 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 Introduction Leak scenarios Impacts of terrestrial leakage Atmospheric enrichment of carbon dioxide (CO2) Leak monitoring techniques Conclusions and future trends Sources of further information and advice References 324 325 327 332 334 336 338 338 13 Environmental risks and performance assessment of carbon dioxide (CO2) leakage in marine ecosystems 344 J Blackford, S Widdicombe and D Lowe, Plymouth Marine Laboratory, UK, and B Chen, Heriot Watt University, UK 13.1 13.2 Introduction The physical and chemical behaviour of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the marine system Marine ecosystem impacts of carbon dioxide (CO2) leakage Leak monitoring options Mitigation of leaks Future trends Sources of further information and advice References 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 344 346 358 365 366 366 367 368 Index acetyl–CoA pathway, 413 acidosis, 359 airlift photobioreactor, 424 amphiboles, 436 areal integrators, 231 areal measurements, 230–3 argon, 335 Artificial Soil Gassing and Response Detection, 337 asbestos, 451 ASGARD see Artificial Soil Gassing and Response Detection ASTM D3359, 483 atmospheric pool, 273 bandgap, 466 Best Practice Manual for Storage of CO2 in Saline Aquifers, 29 biofixation advantages and limitations, 426–7 algal divisions and their characteristic storage products, 416 autotrophic micro-organisms and their energy sources, 414 basic principles and methods, 412–14 Calvin cycle, 412, 413 other CO2 biofixation pathways, 412–14 carbon dioxide, 411–28 chemoautrophs and photoautotrophs, 414–18 chemoautotrophic bacteria, 415 microalgae, 416–18 photosynthetic micro-organisms, 415 CO2 fixation by microalgae, 418–26 CO2 fixation and biofuel production, 421–2 large-scale microalgal farming systems, 423–5 microalgal biomass harvesting and drying, 425–6 microalgal farming, 419–21 ocean fertilisation, 418–19 complete CO2 recycling for solar energy capturing, 427 energy production via microalgal biomass conversion, 423 future trends, 427–8 biomass drying, 425–6 blue green algae, 418 brine density, 190–2 brine displacement, 244–51 brittlestars see Ophiura ophiura bubble sparged photobioreactor, 424 buoyancy frequency, 315–16 burrowing urchin see Echinocardium cordatum calcification, 346 calcium oxide, 433 Callinectes sapidus, 359 Calvin cycle, 412, 413 Cancer pagurus, 360 capillary entry pressure, 187 capillary pressure, 186, 187, 194–5, 196 applications to CO2 brine systems, 187–8 Monte Carlo predictions within a reservoir seal, 193–5 petrophysical properties used, 192 and seal capacities calculations, 188–93 503 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 504 Index capillary seals calculations of capillary pressures and seal capacities, 188–93 contact angle data, 190 fluid density data, 190–2 interfacial tension data, 189–90 interfacial tension data summary, 189 petrophysical properties, 192 pore throat radius data, 192–3 temperature and pressure conditions for hydrocarbon-producing sands, 191 carbon dioxide trapping in underground reservoirs, 185–99 capillary pressure applications to CO2 brine systems, 187–8 capillary principles and terminology for hydrocarbon systems, 186–7 Monte Carlo predictions of capillary pressure within a reservoir seal, 193–5 calculated capillary pressures and minimum column heights, 194–5 calculated minimum capillary pressures, 196 pilot CO2 projects and natural accumulation reservoir conditions, 193 capillary trapping, 170 capacity, 173, 174 caprock, 45–6 CarbFix project, 437, 450 carbon capture and sequestration continuous point-source leak evolution, 356 continuous point-source leak showing pH perturbation evolution, 357 leakage regional scale modelling, 353–5 predicted changes in carbonate chemistry, 347–9 temporary point-source leak scenario, 354 carbon capture and storage, 169 carbon density, 108 carbon dioxide biofixation by micro-organisms, 411–28 advantages and limitations, 426–7 basic principles and methods, 412–14 chemoautrophs and photoautotrophs, 414–18 future trends, 427–8 microalgae, 418–26 biological enhanced utilisation, 384–90 algae farm, 387 fatty acids distribution in macroalgae lipids, 389 influence of CO2 concentration on fatty acids distribution in Chaetomorpha I, 388 land requirements for bio-oil production for different biomass, 386 LCA of biofuels production from biomass, 391 lipid accumulation capacity of some microalgae or macroalgae, 385 micro- and macroalgae performance, 390 terrestrial vs aquatic biomass, 386 use of cascade of technologies for full use of biomass, 389 bubble dissolution in shallow ocean, 352 capillary seals for underground reservoirs trapping, 185–99 capture processes and technologies in power plants, 15 chemical production, 398–404 butadiene coupling with CO2, 402 carbamates, carbonates and isocyanates synthesis based on CO2, 400 energy products synthesis, 402–4 intermediate and fine chemicals synthesis, 398–402 compression, transport and injection processes and technologies, 16 conditions for using CO2, 378–80 conversion as storage of excess electric energy or intermittent energies, 391–8 electrochemical conversion, 393–7 photocatalytic reduction, 397–8 thermal processes, 392 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index droplet plume and CO2-enriched seawater plume from numerical simulations, 350 electrode-potential for some CO2 multielectron reductions, 393 energy cycle using carbon as energy carrier, 464 environmental risks and impacts of leakage in terrestrial ecosystem, 324–38 atmospheric enrichment, 332–4 future trends, 336–8 leak monitoring techniques, 334–6 leak scenarios, 325–7 terrestrial leakage impacts, 327–32 environmental risks and performance assessment of leakage in marine ecosystems, 344–67 future trends, 366–7 leak monitoring options, 365–6 leaks mitigation, 366 marine ecosystem impacts of leakage, 358–65 free energy of formation and combustion heat of C1 molecules, 396 full-developed CO2-enriched plume properties, 353 geological sequestration, 17 geological sequestration screening and selection criteria and characterisation techniques, 27–52 CO2 storage capacity estimation, 47–51 future trends, 51–2 screening for storage suitability and site selection, 28–43 site characterisation, 43–7 site selection, 28–39 geological storage options, 324–5 deep saline aquifers, 325 depleted oil and gas reservoirs, 325 unmineable coal beds, 325 industrial utilisation, 377–405 E-factor of several kinds of chemicals, 383 future trends, 404–5 mineralisation, 433–52 505 advantages and limitations, 449–50 basic principles and methods, 435–8 future trends, 451–2 process energy efficiency, 447 in situ mineral carbonation, 450–1 technologies and potential applications, 438–46 oceanic sequestration, 304–20 anthropogenic CO2 sources, 308–9 CO2 properties, 311–12 future trends, 318 history of deep ocean storage proposals, 305–7 injection of CO2, water and pulverised limestone emulsion, 313–18 legal constraints of CO2 deep ocean storage, 307–8 modelling of CO2 release, 312–13 ocean structure, 309–10 options for stabilising GHGs atmospheric concentrations, 272 phase diagram in the ocean, 351 photocatalytic reduction, 463–97 advantages and limitations, 495 fundamentals of photocatalysis, 465–70 future trends, 495–6 renewable energy, 470–95 physical and chemical behaviour in marine system, 346–55 carbonate chemistry, 346–7 CCS leakage regional scale modelling, 353–5 fine-scale dynamics of droplets/ plumes, 349–52 predicted changes in carbonate chemistry, 347–9 proposed mechanism CO2 adsorption on TiO2, 469 photocatalytic CO2 reduction on TiO2, 470 semiconductors for reduction in water under solar light irradiation, 397 solubility in several solvents and influence of pressure, 394 sources and its value, 380–1 technological uses, 381–4, 382 terrestrial and ocean sequestration, 18 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 506 Index terrestrial sequestration, 271–98 basic principles, 279–90 challenges, 291–5 emissions from agricultural vs other activities, 276–9 extrapolation, 295–6 potential, 290–1 soil and terrestrial carbon as indicators of climate change, 296–7 terrestrial pool and it’s role in the global carbon cycle, 273–6 uses in synthetic chemistry, 399 vs CFC climate change power, 382 carbon dioxide brine systems, 187–8 carbon dioxide capture and geological storage, 433 carbon dioxide capture and sequestration, 433 estimated storage capacities and storage times, 434 carbon dioxide capture and storage, 1–20, 57 future trends, 19–20 greenhouse gas emissions and global climate change, 2–8 average annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations, 4–5 carbon dioxide intensity by region and country 1980-2030, EU-15 CO2 emissions 2006, global average air and ocean temperatures, rising global average sea levels and melting of sea-ice, management and stabilisation routes, 8–11 CCS systems schematic diagram, 10 stabilisation wedges concept for reducing carbon emissions, 11 total cost of early commercial projects, 15 and transport technology development and innovation, 11–17 CCS component technologies, 12 CO2 compression, transport and injection processes and technology, 16 economics, regulation and planning, 14–15 global CCS projects, 13 industrial applications, 16–17 processes and technologies in power plants, 15–16 utilisation technology development and innovation, 17–19 advanced concepts, 18–19 geological sequestration, 17 maximising and verifying storage in underground reservoirs, 17–18 terrestrial and ocean sequestration and environmental impacts, 18 carbon dioxide density, 190–2 carbon dioxide dissolution, 67–9 carbon dioxide flooding, 169–70 carbon dioxide injection, 240, 251–5 capillary trapping capacity as a function of initial non-wetting phase saturation, 173 as a function of porosity for different measurements, 174 design to maximise underground reservoir storage and EOR, 169–81 capillary trapping experiments, 172–4 carbon storage in geological formations, 169–72 future trends, 181 storage in oilfields, 179–80 trapped non-wetting phase, 171 field-scale design of storage in aquifers, 175–9 gas saturation as a function of distance, 178 mobility ratio between injected CO2–brine mixture and formation brine, 177 saturation distributions for CO2 injection simulation, 180 saturation distributions near injection wall, 178 simulation parameter, 176 simulator used to design CO2 storage, 175 storage efficiency and amount of brine injected, 179 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index gas saturation maps, 120 low-permeability fractured systems, 114–16 modelling implications, 121–2 pure CO2 distribution maps, 121 carbon dioxide injectivity, 115 carbon dioxide lake, 311 carbon dioxide leakage detection and measurement, 225–33 areal measurements, 230–3 pointwise measurements, 226–30 shallow-focused methods, 233 carbon dioxide mineral sequestration see mineral carbonation carbon dioxide plumes, 248, 253 carbon dioxide sequestration, 185 CO2 enhanced recovery mechanisms, 109–16 binodal curves for CO2 and methane, 113 CO2 injection in low-permeability fractured systems, 114–16 development of miscibility, 109–12 displacement mechanisms, 112–14 immiscible vs miscible recovery, 109 miscible displacement, 110 CO2 storage capacity estimation, 47–51 coal beds, 47–8 deep saline aquifers, 50–1 oil and gas reservoirs, 48–9 coal seams and use for enhanced coalbed methane recovery, 127–58 ECBM schematic, 130 enhanced coalbed methane recovery, 129–31 future trends, 157–8 storage in unmineable coal seams, 128–9 competitive adsorption, 131–9 CO2 sorption isotherms on dry Italian coal, 137 competitive high pressure gas sorption measurements, 133 competitive sorption of a ternary gas mixture, 136 excess sorption isotherms of CO2, CH4 and N2, 135 507 single-component high pressure gas sorption measurements, 132 deep saline aquifers and formations, 57–88 field tests, 153–6 Ishikari coal field CO2 storage pilot project results, 156–7 performed and planned ECBM tests, 154 future trends, 86–8 environmental safety and concerns, 86–7 policy considerations, 87–8 saline aquifer injection projected transport and operating costs, 87 saline aquifer sequestration costs, 86 social acceptance, 88 geologic storage in tight rocks, 118–22 gas saturation maps for depletion/ imiscible CO2 injection, 120 pure CO2 distribution maps for miscible CO2 injection, 121 mass transfer and enhanced coalbed modelling, 148–53 coal seam density profiles, 149–50 ECBM schemes simulation results, 152 modelling, 74–8 geologic storage and related projects, 79 history, 74–5 model inter-comparison, 78 sedimentary basins, 76–8 oil and gas reservoirs and use for enhanced oil recovery, 104–23 capacity estimates, 107 carbon density, 108 depth and oil density for CO2-EOR projects, 117 EOR and carbon storage cooptimisation, 116–18 gas reservoirs, 106–7 oil reservoirs, 105–6 pilot sites, 80–6 CO2 plume in subsurface Frio, 84 Frio formation, 83 gas production and CO2 re-injection into Utsira sand, 81 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 508 Index other projects, 83–5 Sleipner CO2 injection plume seismic monitoring, 82 Snøhvit project, 80 Utsira Sand, Sleipner, northern North Sea, 80 Weyburn, 85–6 pseudoternary diagram condensing-gas drive miscibility, 111 FCM process, 110 vaporising-gas drive miscibility, 112 saline aquifers, 58–64 characteristics, 61–4 CO2 phase diagram, 61 North America sedimentary basins, 59 range of potential injection conditions, 62 storage capacities for major geologic storage reservoirs, 63 world sedimentary basins, 60 screening and selection criteria, and characterisation techniques for CO2, 27–52 future trends, 51–2 screening for storage suitability and site selection, 28–43 depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs and in enhanced oil or gas recovery, 39–42 desirable characteristics of sedimentary basins, 32 eliminatory suitability criteria, 31 oil reservoirs characteristics for CO2-EOR, 41 site selection for CO2 storage, 28–39 uneconomic coal beds CO2 storage, 42–3 site characterisation, 43–7 caprock and overburden properties, 45–6 geochemical assessment, 46 geological characterisation, 44–5 geomechanical assessment, 46 predictive flow modelling, 46–7 risk assessment, 47 storage unit properties, 45 swelling and permeability, 139–48 coal porosity and permeability changes, 144 coal swelling measurements, 140 Italian coals dry disc swelling, 141–2 Sulcis coal core experiments results, 146–7 trapping mechanisms, 64–74 calcite solubility temperature dependence, 71 CO2 dissolution, 67–9 hydrodynamic, 66–7 hydrodynamic stratigraphic trapping, 65–6 ionic trapping, 70–2 isotherms of CO2 solubility in pure water, 69 log K of carbonic acid dissociation vs temperature, 70 mineral trapping, 72–4 residual trapping, 67 temperature dependence of anorthite reaction with dissolved CO2, 73 carbon dioxide storage eliminatory criteria, 34–6 estimation of capacity, 47–51 coal beds, 47–8 deep saline aquifers, 50–1 oil and gas reservoirs, 48–9 field-scale design of storage in aquifers, 175–9 hydrocarbon reservoirs and enhanced oil or gas recovery, 39–42 illustrative modelling applications, 244–59 boundary of model domain and thickness of Mount Simon, 247 CO2 leakage histogram, 260 CO2 outflow behaviour on injection rate, 258 conceptual leakage scenario, 257 conceptual model for leakage through wellbores, 259 contours of CO2 saturation after 50 years of injection, 249 fluid pressurisation and brine displacement, 244–51 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index injected CO2 long-term fate, 251–5 leakage along faults, fracture zones, and wellbores, 255–9 pressure increase contours, 250 regions of influence, 245 simulated CO2 plumes after one and 1000 years, 253 temperature and CO2 saturations profile, 258 leakage detection and measurement, 225–33 areal measurements, 230–3 leakage monitoring system, 227 mobile laser data image, 232 pointwise measurements, 226–30 shallow-focused methods, 233 surface displacement 2004-2008, 234 Weyburn soil gas surveys results, 228 mathematical modelling of underground reservoirs longterm safety, 240–60 coupled processes, 243–4 measurement and monitoring technologies in underground reservoirs, 203–35 future trends, 233–5 oilfields, 179–80 selection criteria, 36–9 simulator, 175 site selection, 28–39 basin and regional scale screening, 30–3 local and site scale screening, 33–9 Sleipner CO2 plume time-lapse seismic images development to 2006, 211 velocity pushdown development, 212 storage site monitoring background, 204–7 monitoring objectives, 206 monitoring tools, 207 storage site migration and leakage scenarios, 205 tools deployed and planned at CO2 injection sites, 208 subsurface CO2 detection and 509 measurement, 207, 209–25 CO2 detection limits at Sleipner, 215 CO2 distributions between injection and observation wells in Frio, 224 Cranfield pressure monitoring, 221 Cranfield well locations, 220 deep-focused methods, 225 downhole results from Frio, 223 fluid distribution volumetric imaging, 210 invasive methods, 219–25 non-invasive monitoring, 209–19 seismic quantification of the 1999 dataset, 213 Sleipner gravity survey layout, 218 carbon electrode, 395 carbonate changes in key carbonate system parameters, 347 chemistry in marine system, 346–7 predicted changes likely from ocean acidification and CCS leakage, 347–9 carbonate aquifers, 77–8 CCS see carbon dioxide capture and storage chemoautotrophic bacteria, 415 ChemTOUGH, 77 Chionoecetes tanneri, 359 Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, 417 Chlorella, 417, 421, 425 Chlorella kessleri, 420 Chlorella sp UK001, 420 Chlorococcum littorale, 420, 424 chlorofluorocarbons, 381 chrysolaminarin, 416 chrysotile, 450 clathrate, 306 Clean Development Mechanism, 291 climate change power, 381 CO2-EOR, 106 correlation between depth and oil density at standard conditions, 117 coal, coal beds, 27, 47–8 carbon dioxide storage, 42–3 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 510 Index coal ranks, 29 coal seams, 128, 131 carbon dioxide sequestration, 127–58 Coal-Seq project, 153 coal swelling, 139, 142 measurements, 140 Sulcis and Ribolla coals unconstrained dry discs, 141–2 coalification process, 128 CO2CRC Otway Project, 83 Commission Directive 96/61/EC, 20 Commission Directive 85/337/EEC, 20 competitive adsorption, 131–9 condensing-gas drive, 111 conservation agriculture, 284 contact angle, 186, 190 Cortez pipeline, 326 CO2STORE, 80 Coulter LS230 particle size analyser, 472 couple hydrodynamic–ecosystem models, 353 crab see Callinectes sapidus; Chionoecetes tanneri Cranfield oilfield, 219 critical criteria, 31 Cross-Cut Tape Test, 483 cross-hole seismic tomography, 223 CRUNCH, 77 Cyanobacteria, 418 d-electrons, 395 Darcy’s law, 145 Debye-Huckle method, 75 deep-focused monitoring, 233 deep ocean storage history of proposals, 305–7 legal constraints, 307–8 London convention on ocean dumping, 307 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 308 deep saline aquifers, 27, 50–1, 58, 170 see also saline aquifers carbon dioxide sequestration, 57–88 future trends, 86–8 modelling, 74–8 pilot sites, 80–6 saline aquifers, 58–64 trapping mechanisms, 64–74 dehydrogenating agent, 401 diadinoxanthin, 417 diallylcarbonate, 399 diatoms, 416–17 dichloromethane, 384 diethylcarbonate, 399 differential satellite interferometry, 233 diffuse degassing, 256 dimethylcarbonate, 399 DInSAR see differential satellite interferometry dioxymethylene, 469 diphenylcarbonate, 399 direct photolysis, 468 dissolution-diffusion-convection, 254 double plume model, 313 dual-sorption models, 139 dye-sensitised P25 photocatalyst, 492–4 dynamic storage capacity, 36, 37 E-factor, 383 E-Tone Technology Company, 483 Earth Simulator, 247 ECBM recovery see enhanced coalbed methane recovery Echinocardium cordatum, 364 Echinocardium incordata, 360 eddy covariance, 334 edible crab see Cancer pagurus effective reservoir capacity, 49 effective storage capacity, 47 effective storage volume, 50 efficiency, 30 electrochemical conversion, 393–7 carbon monoxide, 396 competing processes and faradic efficiency, 395–6 electrodes, 394–5 eventual use of electrocatalysts, 395 hydrocarbons, 397 methanol, ethanol, 396 olefins, 397 support solvent, 393–4 electrochemical reduction, 468 eliminatory criteria, 30–1 energetic CO2 sequestration efficiency, 460 enhanced coalbed methane recovery, 17, 127–58 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index field tests, 154 operation schematic, 130 simulation results, 152 enhanced-natural weathering, 438 enhanced oil recovery, 39–42, 104, 116–18, 119, 129, 380 CO2 sequestration in oil and gas reservoirs, 104–23 EQ3/EQ6, 75 essential criteria, 31 Eustigmatophytes, 417–18 excess sorption, 134 Exfo Acticure 4000, 484 faults, 255–9 fine-scale ocean, 349 first-contact miscible, 110 flat-plate photobioreactor, 424 fluid pressurisation, 244–51 flux chamber, 334 flux gradient techniques, 334 formaldehyde, 469 formate, 469 formation damage, 114 forsterite, 436 fossil fuel power plants, 15 fossil fuels, fracture zones, 255–9 free-air carbon dioxide enrichment techniques, 283, 332 Frio, 83 Frio C, 83 Frio project, 223, 225 fucoxanthin, 416, 417 gas displacement recovery, 40 gas in place, 155 gas injection, 104, 116 gas reservoirs, 27, 106–7, 169, 170 CO2 sequestration and use for enhanced oil recovery, 104–23 gas-to-fuel conversion, 403 GCCSI see Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute GEMBOCHS, 76 geologic pool, 273 geological characterisation, 44–5 geological sequestration, 27–52 carbon dioxide, 17 511 Gibbs free energy, 464 GIMRT/OS3D, 76 global C cycle, 273 Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute, 14 global climate change, 2–8 global warming potential, globules, 314 glucose, 463 glyoxylate, 414 golden-brown algae, 417 Gorgon Project, 83 green algae, 417 GreenGen, 14 greenhouse effect, greenhouse gas, 2–8, 271, 411, 463 Haematococcus pluvialis, 424–5 Henry’s law constant, 305 Hitura nickel mine, 442 hydrocarbon reservoirs, 39–42 hydrocarbon systems, 186–7 hydrodynamic trapping, 66–7 hydrofracture, 197 3-hydroxypropionate cycle, 413–14 hypercapnia, 359 hyperspectral techniques, 335 ideal adsorbed solution theory, 138 IEA Weyburn CO2 Monitoring and Storage project, 85–6 IGCC see Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle Illinois Basin, 247, 248, 251 industrial waste, 307 infrared radiation atmospheric monitoring, 230–1 InSAR see satellite radar interferometry Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle, 9, 381 integrated nutrient management, 282 interfacial tension, 37, 109, 186 intertidal gastropod see Littorina littorea invasive monitoring, 219–25 ionic trapping, 70–2 IPCC see United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC Special Report on CO2 Capture and Storage, 29 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 512 Index iron, 418 ISO 2409, 483 J-aggregate dimers, 493 Joint Implementation, 291 Joule-Thomson effect, 256 JRC-2, 471 XRD spectra, 474 Kenicsy-type static mixer, 314 Knallgas bacteria, 413 Kyoto Protocol, 291, 426, 435 Laacher See, 231 Langmuir equation, 145 Langmuir–Blodgett films, 493 leakage, 204 legal accessibility, 31 life-cycle analysis, 379 Littorina littorea, 364 local-scale site selection criteria, 33 London convention on ocean dumping, 307 low-pressure shelf drying, 426 Lumen meter, 484 MAC Science M03XHF, 472 macroalgae fatty acids distribution in lipids, 389 lipid accumulation capacity, 385 performance, 390 magnesium hydromagnesite, 451 magnesium oxide, 433 magnesium silicates, 435 marine ecosystems carbon dioxide droplets/plumes finescale dynamics, 349–52 bubble/droplet dynamics, 350–1 CO2 and CO2-enriched seawater plumes fine-scale dynamics, 351–2 CO2/seawater system physical properties, 349–50 carbon dioxide leakage environmental risks and performance assessment, 344–67 future trends, 366–7 leak monitoring options, 365–6 leaks mitigation, 366 carbon dioxide physical and chemical behaviour, 346–55 impacts of carbon dioxide leakage, 358–65 brittlestars egg maturation disruption, 363 community structure and diversity, 362, 364 impact on growth and reproduction, 360–2 nitrogen cycling, 364–5 organism health and survival, 360 organism physiology, 359 sea urchin gut basement membrane disruption and morphology changes, 361 marine pH past and contemporary variability, 348 mass storage capacity, 48 McElmo dome, 326–7 measurement, monitoring and verification, 18 membrane seal, 187 mesocosm, 362 METSIM2, 151 Mettler Toledo InPro 6000 series, 472 microalgae, 416–18 biomass harvesting and drying, 425–6 CO2 fixation blue green algae, 418 diatoms, 416–17 Eustigmatophytes, 417–18 golden-brown algae, 417 green algae, 417 Prymnesiophytes, 417 combined CO2 fixation and biofuel production, 421–2 conceptual microalgal farming system, 427 energy production via microalgal biomass conversion, 423 farming, 419–21 large-scale microalgal farming systems, 423–5 lipid accumulation capacity, 385 performance, 390 raceway ponds vs tubular photobioreactors, 424 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index strains studied for CO2 biomitigation, 422 Micromeritics ASAP 2000, 472 micrometeorological techniques, 334 migration, 204 mild oxidant, 401 Minami-Nagaoka gas field, 83 mineral carbonation, 433–52 basic principles and methods, 435–8 costs related to energy use for mineral pre-treatment, 448 direct and indirect carbonation principles, 439 direct gas–solid route complete carbonation reaction times, 441 energy efficiency, 460–2 future trends, 451–2 MgO/Mg(OH)2 carbonation with supercritical CO2, 444 related issues, 447–51 advantages and limitations, 449–50 process energy efficiency, 447 in situ mineral carbonation, 450–1 results for 0.5 hour fluidised bed experiments, 446 technologies and potential applications, 438–46 early developments (1990-2000), 438–40 next five years (2000-2004), 440–3 recent developments (2005-today), 443–5 mineral trapping, 72–4 miscibility, 109–12 minimum pressure, 41, 112, 116 Monte Carlo predictions, 193–5 Mount Simon Sandstone, 247, 248 multicomponent seismic, 216, 217 multiple-contact miscible, 110, 111 Mytilus edulis, 359, 360 N3 dye, 484, 492 Nafion membrane film, 465 Nannochloropsis, 418 natural carbon dioxide springs, 331 natural weathering, 433 Near Zero Emission Coal, 14 Neochloris oleoabundans, 417 nesquehonite, 451 513 net primary productivity, 279 Nisku carbonate aquifer, 78 nitrification, 364 Nitrobacter, 415 Nitrosomonas, 415 non-invasive monitoring, 209–19 NUFT, 76 NZEC see Near Zero Emission Coal ocean acidification, 345, 367 ocean dumping, 307 ocean fertilisation, 418–19 oceanic pool, 273 oceanic sequestration anthropogenic CO2 sources, 308–9 carbon dioxide, 304–20 properties, 311–12 release modelling, 312–13 water–CO2 system phase diagram, 312 CO2/H2O/CaCO3 emulsion injection, 313–18 CO2 release on sloping seabed, 317 economics, 318 emulsion made from Kenics-type static mixer, 314 open ocean, 314–16 open ocean CO2 release, 315 open ocean globulsion plume length dependence on density stratification, 316 sloping continental shelf, 316–18 vertical globulsion plume length vs density stratification, 319 deep ocean storage history of proposals, 305–7 legal constraints, 307–8 future trends, 318 ocean structure, 309–10 liquid and supercritical CO2 and H2O density–pressure– temperature nomogram, 310 North Pacific sample pH profile, 311 North Pacific sample temperature profile, 309 oil reservoirs, 27, 105–6, 169, 170 CO2 sequestration and use for enhanced oil recovery, 104–23 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 514 Index suggested characteristics for miscible CO2-EOR, 41 oilfields, 179–80 olivine, 434, 436, 462 Ophiura ophiura, 362 optical-fibre photoreactor, 484, 494–5 design, 481–2 experimental, 482–5 CO2 photoreduction in vapour phase, 484–5 TiO2-coated optical fibre preparation, 482–4 remaining photo energy in optical fibre, 482 schematic, 485 TiO2-coated optical fibre light transmission and spread, 481 ordinary differential equation, 255 original oil in place, 40 oxygen vacancies, 468 P25, 471 dye-sensitised photocatalyst, 492–4 UV-Vis spectroscopy of different thin films, 492 particle size distribution, 475 PATHARCH, 76 pentane, 384 PERC, 382 perfluorocarbon tracers, 335 permeability, 62 phosgene, 400, 401 photocatalysts characteristics, methanol yields and energy conversion efficiency, 476 dissolved O2 of two Cu/TiO2 during reaction, 480 element molar ratio, 476 time dependence on methanol yields, 479 XPS spectra Cu 2p on Cu/TiO2, 478 Ti 2p, 477 photocatalytic reduction, 397–8, 468 carbon dioxide, 463–97 advantages and limitations, 495 dye-sensitised P25 photocatalyst, 492–4 future trends, 495–6 influence of mixed oxides TiO2SiO2, 490–1 photoreduction on titanium dioxide, 469–70 photoreduction to hydrocarbons, 468–9 transition metal-loaded TiO2, 488–90 energy cycle using carbon as energy carrier, 464 fundamentals, 465–70 mechanism, 466–8 photoreaction on photocatalyst, 467 semiconductors and redox couples bandgap in aqueous solution, 466 JRC-2 and Cu/TiO2 XRD spectra, 474 methane and ethylene production rate over dye-sensitised P25 under artificial light, 493 under concentrated natural sunlight, 494 photoreactor in aqueous solution, 473 renewable energy, 470–95 CO2 in aqueous solution, 470–81 CO2 in vapour phase, 481–5 ethylene and methane production rate over various photocatalysts under UVA, 490 methane production rate over TiO2-SiO2 mixed oxide-based photocatalysts, 491 solar-energy harvest system concept, 497 photochemical reduction, 468 PHREEQC, 76, 77 PHREEQE, 75 phytoplankton, 418 Pickering emulsion, 314 picoplankton, 417 plagioclase rock, 450 pneumatic eruption, 259 polycarbonates, 398 polyethylene glycol, 482 polyurethanes, 398 Porapak Q column, 473 pore throat radius data, 192–3 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index powder photocatalyst characteristics, 473–7 preparation, 470–2 synthesis procedure, 471 Precautionary Principle, 307 precipitated calcium carbonate, 433 predictive flow modelling, 46–7 pressure monitoring, 219, 220, 222 pressurised fluidised bed, 444 pressurised thermogravimetric analyser, 440 Prymnesiophytes, 417 Psammechinus miliaris, 359, 362 pseudoternary diagram, 110 PSU-COALCOMP, 151 pyroxenes, 436 Rangely Field, 105, 108 RECOPOL project, 153 recoverable oil in place, 40 recovery factor, 40 reductive pentose phosphate cycle see Calvin cycle Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships, 14 relative permeability, 30 reliability, 30 remote sensing, 335 Reservoir Saturation Tool, 222 reservoir sealed pairs, 29 reservoirs, 17–18 residual saturation, 172 residual trapping, 67 reversed citric acid cycle, 413 ROIP see recoverable oil in place saline aquifers, 58–64, 240 characteristics, 61–4 capacity, 63–4 depth, 61–2 mineralogy and grain size, 62 porosity and permeability, 62–3 sandstone aquifers, 76–7 satellite radar interferometry, 233 Scenedesmus obliquus, 420 Scherrer equation, 474 Schottky barrier, 479 sea urchin see Echinocardium incordata; Psammechinus miliaris 515 Second Law of Thermodynamics, 460 sedimentary basins, 59, 60, 76–8, 257 carbon dioxide storage criteria for assessing and ranking suitability, 28–9 desirable characteristics, 32 eliminatory suitability criteria, 31 carbonate aquifers, 77–8 Nisku carbonate aquifer, 78 Tuscan Nappe limestone formation, 77–8 sandstone aquifers, 76–7 deep sand aquifers, 77 glauconitic sandstone, 76–7 tertiary gulf coast sediments, 77 Utsira Sand, Sleipner, northern North Sea, 76 serpentinites of Gruppo di Voltri, 78 sepiolite, 450 sequestration, 18 Seriola quinqueradiata, 360 serpentine, 434, 436, 462 serpentine aquifers, 78 serpentinite, 78, 435 shallow-focused monitoring, 233 shock front, 151 silicate mineral carbonation technology, 435 simple wave, 151 site characterisation, 43–7 site screening, 28 Sleipner, 209, 210, 211, 214 Sleipner project, 80 Snøhvit project, 80 soil gas measurements, 226–30 soil organic matter, 273 Solaronix, 484 solid-state dispersion method, 465 SOLMINEQ, 75 SOLVEQ, 75 SPE10, 177 Spirulina sp., 420 stabilisation wedges, 9, 11 static storage capacity, 36 steady-state injectivity, 115 Stokes’ law, 318 storage efficiency, 177, 179 sun drying, 426 SUPCRT92, 70, 75, 76 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 516 Index supercritical carbon dioxide, 384 supercritical fluid chromatography, 384 superficial velocity, 145 surface 3D seismic, 209–16 Syngas, 389, 392, 400, 403 temperature monitoring, 219, 222 terrestrial ecosystem CO2 leakage environmental risks and impacts, 324–38 ASGARD field site, 337 CO2 atmospheric enrichment, 332–4 future trends, 336–8 hyperspectral index temporal variations, 336 leak monitoring techniques, 334–6 leak scenarios, 325–7 soil CO2 enrichment man-made analogues of, 330 natural analogues, 331 terrestrial leakage impacts, 327–32 CO2 enrichment laboratory studies, 328–30 elevated CO2 effects on soil fauna, 331–2 terrestrial pool, 273 components in different global biomes, 274 estimates in different biomes, 276 interaction with atmospheric C pools, 275 terrestrial sequestration basic principles, 279–90 carbon pool estimates in world soils, 281 different biomes net primary productivity, 280 nutrients in fine roots, 283 plant C pool, 281–4 soil organic carbon density in different agroecological zones, 281 soilC density and pool, 279–81 total root biomass in major world ecosystems, 282 carbon dioxide, 271–98 carbon sequestration technical potential in terrestrial ecosystems, 290 challenges, 291–5 ancillary benefits, 294 carbon sink capacity, 291 measurement and monitoring, 292, 294 permanence, 292 reference tables, 294 soil C pool and climate change, 295 technological options, 291–2 emissions from agricultural vs other activities, 276–9 carbon emissions estimates from farm operations, 278 different farm operations, 277–8 emission reduction from land use conversion and agricultural activities, 278–9 global biomass production estimates, 289 relative emissions from agriculture and forestry, 277 extrapolation, 295–6 all greenhouse gases, 296 biofuel issue, 296 charcoal and fire, 295 ecosystem carbon budget, 295 fine roots and turnover, 295–6 plant characteristics, 296 role of soil biota, 296 potential, 290–1 processes affecting carbon sequestration in soils, 285 soil and ecosystem matrix specific technological options, 293 soil and terrestrial carbon as indicators of climate change, 296–7 soil C sequestration, 284–90 biochar, 286 biofuel/energy plantation, 288 burying biomass, 288–90 degraded soils afforestation, 288 no-till farming, 284, 286 peat soil restoration, 286, 288 secondary carbonates, 290 soil carbon pool and fluxes as indicators of climate change, 297 soil organic carbon sequestration longterm rates, 294 terrestrial C sequestration determinants in soil and biota, 287 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010 Index terrestrial pool and it’s role in the global carbon cycle, 273–6 Texas Gulf Coast Basin, 246 thermal decompression, 384 Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, 415 Thiobacillus thiooxidans, 415 titanium dioxide CO2 adsorption, 469 particle size distribution, 475 photocatalytic CO2 reduction, 470 TiO2, Cu/TiO2 and Ag/TiO2 cross-section SEM images on optical fibres, 486–7 diffraction patterns, 487 film characteristics, 488 methanol yield vs light intensity, 489, 490 UV spectra, 488 transition metal-loaded TiO2 for CO2 photoreduction, 488–90 transmission electron microscopy photographs, 475 titanium (IV) butoxide, 471, 482 titanium oxide, 465 TOUGH2, 76, 83 TOUGHREACT, 75, 76, 77 transition metals, 395 trapping capacity, 172, 173 trapping efficiency, 179 trapping mechanisms, 64–74 tri-reforming, 403 Triassic Stuttgart, 85 triglycerides, 416 tubular photobioreactor, 424 Tuscan Nappe, 77–8 UBE process, 400 UK Climate Change Act, UNCLOS see United Nations Convention 517 on the Law of the Sea underground reservoirs capillary seals for trapping carbon dioxide, 185–99 carbon dioxide injection design, 169–81 CO2 storage long-term safety mathematical modelling, 240–60 UNFCC see United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 308 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 7–8 United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, US Department of Energy Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships, 85 Utsira Sand, 76, 80, 210 vaporising-gas drive, 112 vertical seismic profiling, 223 VG Microtech MT500, 472 VSP see vertical seismic profiling WAG ratio, 113 water-alternating-gas, 113 wellbores, 255–9 wettability, 190 wollastonite, 436, 439 Xtool, 76 yellowtail finfish see Seriola quinqueradiata Zero Emission Research Detection, 337 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2010