Carbon dioxide capture for storage in deep geologic formations

Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO2 Capture Project Capture and Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Combustion Sources Volume Elsevier Internet Homepage – http://www.elsevier.com Consult the Elsevier homepage for full catalogue information on all books, major reference works, journals, electronic products and services Elsevier Titles of Related Interest AN END TO GLOBAL WARMING L.O Williams ISBN: 0-08-044045-2, 2002 FUNDAMENTALS AND TECHNOLOGY OF COMBUSTION F El-Mahallawy, S El-Din Habik ISBN: 0-08-044106-8, 2002 GREENHOUSE GAS CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES: 6TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE John Gale, Yoichi Kaya ISBN: 0-08-044276-5, 2003 MITIGATING CLIMATE CHANGE: FLEXIBILITY MECHANISMS T Jackson ISBN: 0-08-044092-4, 2001 Related Journals: Elsevier publishes a wide-ranging portfolio of high quality research journals, encompassing the energy policy, environmental, and renewable energy fields A sample journal issue is available online by visiting the 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Regional Sales Offices – please access the Elsevier homepage for full contact details (homepage details at the top of this page) Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations – Results from the CO2 Capture Project Capture and Separation of Carbon Dioxide from Combustion Sources Edited by David C Thomas Senior Technical Advisor Advanced Resources International, Inc 4603 Clearwater Lane Naperville, IL, USA Volume 2005 Amsterdam – Boston – Heidelberg – London – New York – Oxford Paris – San Diego – San Francisco – Singapore – Sydney – Tokyo ELSEVIER B.V Radarweg 29 P.O Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam The Netherlands ELSEVIER Inc 525 B Street, Suite 1900 San Diego, CA 92101-4495 USA ELSEVIER Ltd The Boulevard, Langford Lane Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB UK ELSEVIER Ltd 84 Theobalds Road London WC1X 8RR UK q 2005 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved This work is protected under copyright by Elsevier Ltd, and the following terms and conditions apply to its use: Photocopying Single 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distribute, translate, duplicate, exhibit and perform these copyrighted papers EU co-funded work appears in chapters 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 33, 34, 35, 36 and 37 Norwegian Research Council (Klimatek) co-funded work appears in chapters 1, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15 and 32 Volume 2: The Storage Preface, Storage Integrity Preface, Monitoring and Verification Preface, Risk Assessment Preface and Chapters 1, 4, 6, 8, 13, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33 were written with support of the U.S Department of Energy under Contract No DE-FC26-01NT41145 The Government reserves for itself and others acting on its behalf a royalty-free, non-exclusive, irrevocable, worldwide license for Governmental purposes to publish, distribute, translate, duplicate, exhibit and perform these copyrighted papers Norwegian Research Council (Klimatek) co-funded work appears in chapters 9, 15 and 16 The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper) W Printed in The Netherlands v Preface Gardiner Hill, BP, plc, Sunbury-on-Thames, UK Chairman, CO2 Capture Project Executive Board We are seeking solutions to one of the great international challenges – reducing carbon emissions and their impact on climate change Over the past decade, the prospect of climate change resulting from anthropogenic CO2 has become a matter of deep and growing public concern Many believe that the precautionary principle is the appropriate response at this time and there is increasing consensus that the action to mitigate this human induced climate change will require not just reducing anthropogenic CO2 emissions, but more importantly stabilizing the overall concentration of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere There are many technology options that can help, but it appears that almost all will add cost to the price we pay for energy Given the scale of the climate change challenge and the need to continue to provide affordable energy in many different cultural, social and operational settings, a portfolio of approaches will be required The best solution will not be the same in each case It seems that the full portfolio of energy technologies will be required Yet, one option that has broad potential application is the technology of CO2 capture and geological storage Capture technology is already in use, but only at small scale While this technology is proven, it needs considerable development to enable scale-up for industrial application and to reduce the cost of what is a very expensive technology today Geological storage, on the other hand, builds on the oil and gas industries’ considerable experience of injecting gas for enhanced oil recovery (EOR), gas storage operations and reservoir management, which are all today successfully managed at scale Capturing and storing CO2 from the combustion of coal, oil and natural gas could deliver material reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and provide a bridge to a lower carbon energy future That is why the participants of the CO2 Capture Project (CCP) decided to work together and collaborate with governments, industry, academic institutions and environmental interest groups, to develop technologies that will greatly reduce the cost of CO2 capture and to demonstrate that underground, geological storage is safe and secure The goal is to reduce the environmental impact of fossil fuel based energy production and use – over the same period of time when global energy demand is forecast to continue to grow strongly – in the most cost effective manner Three governments and eight companies have jointly funded, and actively participated in, the CCP The best minds and research laboratories have been brought together to identify and pursue the most promising of the CO2 capture technologies that could be commercially ready in the 2012 time frame A wide range of academic and commercial institutions, all subject to open and comprehensive peer review, have provided breakthrough thinking, concepts and technology The views of external bodies, such as environmental groups have been incorporated Through international public–private collaboration, we believe the CO2 Capture Project has made a real difference by stimulating rapid technology development and creating the new state of the art The CCP book contains technical papers and findings from all contractors involved in the first phase of the project This work is the combined effort of over 70 technology providers, 21 academic institutions, six NGOs and each of the eight participating companies In addition, the work benefited from the input and guidance from our four participating government organisations The book is compiled in two volumes: Volume covers capture technology development, our work in the area of capture and storage policy, the Technology Advisory Board project review and the common economic model that was developed to enable us to compare performance on a common basis and present the economic results Volume covers the geological storage program which we called SMV – Storage, Monitoring and Verification These two volumes should serve as a valuable reference document vi for a wide spectrum of industry, academia and interested stakeholders on technology development for CO2 capture and geological storage The CCP has achieved its Phase I goals for lower cost CO2 capture technology and furthered the safe, reliable option of using geological storage The results speak for themselves; delivering upwards of a 50% reduction in the cost of CO2 capture in a year time frame, is a considerable accomplishment The results also offer promise that further significant improvements are likely in the performance and costs of this technology The geological storage program has pioneered the risk-based approach for geological site selection, operation and abandonment The program has made a major contribution overall to the confidence of CO2 geological storage integrity and has developed some exciting new monitoring tools There is now a much deeper understanding of the important role carbon capture and geological sequestration can play in a carbon-constrained future, particularly in a future that involves stabilization of the concentrations of CO2 in the earth’s atmosphere The industrial participants in the CCP would like to thank all of the people who have worked with us over the past years and who have supported the delivery of our encouraging results The list is long and includes people from academia, technology providers, the NGO community, industry and governments The degree of cooperation, and hard work by those involved has been gratifying and has helped enormously in finding our way through the many challenges that lay in our path The CCP project has succeeded because of extreme hard work from the whole extended multi-disciplinary team I would like to especially acknowledge the US DOE’s National Energy Technology Laboratory, The European Union’s DGTREN and DGRES programs, and the Norwegian Research Council’s Klimatek program, without whose support the CO2 Capture Project would not have been possible Finally, I would like to formally thank the companies who were the project industrial participants – BP, ChevronTexaco, EnCana, ENI, Hydro, Shell, Statoil and Suncor – for their proactive engagement and strong leadership of the program All the participants were engaged, active, and willing partners working towards the project goals The two volumes that you hold in your hand are the result of many thousand hours of effort It is the Executive Board’s hope that the technologies described here will form the basis of a vibrant and important industry for the benefit of mankind vii Acknowledgements Helen Kerr, BP, p.l.c Program Manager, CO2 Capture Project The CO2 Capture Project results reported here were delivered with the help of an exceptional technical team, who all deserve a special mention, but in particular I would like to acknowledge with thanks the CCP technical team leaders past and present: Henrik Andersen (Hydro), Mike Slater (BP), John Boden (BP), Odd Furuseth (Statoil), Henriette Undrum (Statoil), Robert Moore (BP), Torgeir Melien (Hydro), Ivanno Miracca (Eni), Mario Molinari (Eni), Craig Lewis (ChevronTexaco), Scott Imbus (ChevronTexaco), Arthur Lee (ChevronTexaco) and Iain Wright (BP) The contracting and procurement support staff who handled over 100 contracts were magnificent: Robert Sloat, John Woods, John Hargrove, Sheetal Handa (BP) & Ole Morten Opheim (Statoil), Donna Douglas (Accenture, BP), Svein Berg (Statoil) and Stuart Green (Atkins, Faithful & Gould) The Technology Advisory Board provided timely sage advice and the benefits of their collective experience to help the project succeed Special thanks to Chairman Vello Kuuskraa (Advanced Resources International, ARI) for your outstanding commitment and personal support The project could not have happened without the support from our partners in government who co-funded the program A special thanks to the project managers, Philip Goldberg and David Hyman (US DOE, NETL), Dennis O’Brien and Vassilios Kougionas (EU DGTREN & EU DGRES) and Hans-Roar Sorheim (NRC Klimatek) These volumes were edited by two exceptional people, David Thomas (ARI) and Sally Benson (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) Thank you for your hard work on behalf of the CCP This page is intentionally left blank ix CONTENTS Preface v Acknowledgements vii VOLUME Introduction David C Thomas and Helen R Kerr Chapter 1: Policies and Incentives Developments in CO2 Capture and Storage Technology: A Focused Survey by the CO2 Capture Project Arthur Lee, Dag Christensen, Frede Cappelen, Jan Hartog, Alison Thompson, Geoffrey Johns, Bill Senior, Mark Akhurst 17 Chapter 2: Review and Evaluation of the CO2 Capture Project by the Technology Advisory Board Vello Kuuskraa 37 Chapter 3: Economic and Cost Analysis for CO2 Capture Costs in the CO2 Capture Project Scenarios Torgeir Melien 47 SECTION 1: POST COMBUSTION CO2 SEPARATION TECHNOLOGY Chapter 4: Post-Combustion CO2 Separation Technology Summary Dag Eimer 91 Chapter 5: CO2 Removal from Power Plant Flue Gas –Cost Efficient Design and Integration Study Gerald N Choi, Robert Chu, Bruce Degen, Harvey Wen, Peter L Richen, Daniel Chinn 99 Chapter 6: Post-Combustion Separation and Capture Baseline Studies for the CCP Industrial Scenarios Paul Hurst, Graeme Walker 117 Chapter 7: KPS Membrane Contactor Module Combined with Kansai/MHI Advanced Solvent, KS-1 for CO2 Separation from Combustion Flue Gases Marianne Søbye Grønvold, Olav Falk-Pedersen, Nobuo Imai, Kazuo Ishida 133 Chapter 8: Removal of CO2 from Low Pressure Flue Gas Streams using Carbon Fibre Composite Molecular Sieves and Electric Swing Adsorption Paul Hurst 157 Chapter 9: Self-Assembled Nanoporous Materials for CO2 Capture Part 1: Theoretical Considerations Ripudaman Malhotra, David L Huestis, Marcy Berding, Srinivasan Krishanamurthy, Abhoyjit Bhown Part 2: Experimental Studies Ripudaman Malhotra, Albert S Hirschon, Anne Venturelli, Kenji Seki, Kent S Knaebel, Heungsoo Shin, Herb Reinhold 165 177 x Chapter 10: Creative Chemical Approaches for Carbon Dioxide Removal from Flue Gas Dag Eimer, Merethe Sjøvoll, Nils Eldrup, Richard H Heyn, Olav Juliussen, Malcolm McLarney, Ole Swang 189 SECTION 2: PRE-COMBUSTION DE-CARBONIZATION TECHNOLOGY Chapter 11: Pre-combustion Decarbonisation Technology Summary Henrik Andersen Chapter 12: Generation of Hydrogen Fuels for a Thermal Power Plant with Integrated CO2-Capture Using a CaO–CaCO3 Cycle Julien Meyer, Rolf Jarle Aaberg, Bjørg Andresen Chapter 13: Development of the Sorption Enhanced Water Gas Shift Process Rodney J Allam, Robert Chiang, Jeffrey R Hufton, Peter Middleton, Edward L Weist, Vince White Chapter 14: Coke Gasification: Advanced Technology for Separation and Capture of CO2 from Gasifier Process Producing Electrical Power, Steam, and Hydrogen Martin Holysh Chapter 15: Development of a Hydrogen Mixed Conducting Membrane Based CO2 Capture Process Bent Vigeland, Knut Ingvar Aasen 203 213 227 257 273 Chapter 16: Hydrogen Transport Membrane Technology for Simultaneous Carbon Dioxide Capture and Hydrogen Separation in a Membrane Shift Reactor Michael V Mundschau, Xiaobing Xie, Anthony F Sammells 291 Chapter 17: Silica Membranes for Hydrogen Fuel Production by Membrane Water Gas Shift Reaction and Development of a Mathematical Model for a Membrane Shift Reactor Paul P.A.C Pex, Yvonne C van Delft 307 Chapter 18: Design, Scale Up and Cost Assessment of a Membrane Shift Reactor Ted R Ohrn, Richard P Glasser, Keith G Rackers Chapter 19: GRACE: Development of Pd–Zeolite Composite Membranes for Hydrogen Production by Membrane Reactor M Mene´ndez, M.P Pina, M.A Urbiztondo, L Casado, M Boutonnet, S Rojas, S Nassos 321 341 Chapter 20: GRACE: Development of Silica Membranes for Gas Separation at Higher Temperatures Henk Kruidhof, Mieke W.J Luiten, Nieck E Benes, Henny J.M Bouwmeester 365 Chapter 21: GRACE: Development of Supported Palladium Alloy Membranes Hallgeir Klette, Henrik Raeder, Yngve Larring, Rune Bredesen 377 Chapter 22: GRACE: Experimental Evaluation of Hydrogen Production by Membrane Reaction Giuseppe Barbieri, Paola Bernardo 385 Chapter 23: GRACE: Pre-combustion De-carbonisation Hydrogen Membrane Study Peter Middleton, Paul Hurst, Graeme Walker 409 Chapter 24: An Evaluation of Conversion of Gas Turbines to Hydrogen Fuel Gregory P Wotzak, Norman Z Shilling, Girard Simons, Kenneth A Yackly 427 1316 M Stevenson, V Pinczewski, SIMED—multicomponent coalbed gas simulator, User’s Manual Version 1.21 APCRC Restricted Report No 022, May 1995, University of New South Whales, Australia, 1995 Vatvani, 1999, Delft3D-FLOW version 3.05, Users Manual, WLlDelft Hydraulics A.F.B Wildenborg, A.L Leijnse, E Kreft, M.N Nepveu, A.N.M Obdam, E.L Wipfler, B Van der Grift, C Hofstee, W Van Kesteren, I Gaus, I Czernichowski-Lauriol, P Torfs, R Wo´jcik, B Orlic, 2003, Safety assessment methodology for CO2 storage (SAMCARDS) CCP Report Reference 2.1.1, DOE Award Number: DE-FC26-01NT41145, 149 p and 18 enclosures Carbon Dioxide Capture for Storage in Deep Geologic Formations, Volume D.C Thomas and S.M Benson (Eds.) q 2005 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved 1317 Chapter 34 KEY FINDINGS, TECHNOLOGY GAPS AND THE PATH FORWARD Scott Imbus1 and Charles Christopher2 Chevron Texaco Energy Technology Company, Bellaire, TX, USA CO2 Management, Innovation, Improved Recovery, BP Americas Inc., Houston TX, USA Options for large-scale geological storage of CO2 emissions have proceeded from concept development and capacity inventories in the 1990s to systematic site characterization and strategies for injection, long-term monitoring and risk assessment in recent years To date, the only purpose-built CO2 storage facility is the million tonne/year Sleipner – Utsira project in the Norwegian North Sea Although the project is deemed successful, it is doubtful that numerous projects of the scale or considerably larger such projects will be permitted without extensive technical due diligence In the constellation of industry, academic and government programs addressing geological CO2 storage, the role assumed by the CCP Storage Monitoring and Verification (SMV) program over 2000 – 2004 is unique The risk-based approach adopted entailed identifying technical gaps and addressing them by leveraging the existing natural and industrial analog knowledge base and developing new R&D avenues Whereas some projects were based on a specific asset or storage venue type, the applications developed are universally applicable The present chapter outlines the key findings of the SMV program and identifies needs for further R&D needed to support pilots, demonstration and commercial projects The SMV program was comprised of some 30 projects organized along four technical areas “Integrity”—assessing the competence of natural and engineered systems to retain CO2 over extended periods “Optimization”—strategies for improving the efficiency and economics of CO2 transportation and storage “Monitoring”—identification of techniques suitable for tracking CO2 movement within (performance) and outside (leakage or seepage) the injection target “Risk Assessment”—development of concepts, protocols and methodologies to quantify probability and impact of CO2 leakage from storage sites INTEGRITY The SMV integrity studies included characterization of naturally charged CO2 systems, a survey of the natural gas storage industry, evaluations of reservoir and cap rock property responses to CO2 injection and the stability of well materials in the presence of carbonated water Key findings are given below The suitability of natural systems to retain CO2 over extended periods of time is predictable using 3D structural and stratigraphic models combined with fluid migration history analysis The basin to reservoir scale geohydrologic model and simulation of CO2 storage in the Forties Field serves as a prototype for systematic assessment of prospective geological storage sites A survey of the natural gas storage industry, comprising 600 facilities operated over 90 years in North America and Europe, documents few gas migration incidents and an excellent HSE record Site selection, operation and leak detection, intervention and remediation techniques used by the gas storage are applicable to CO2 storage Assessments of rock response to CO2 injection through core flood experiments, geomechanical models and geochemical/geomechanical simulations identify and begin to quantify risks for failure through fracturing and fault reactivation 1318 Experiments demonstrate that well materials currently in use are subject to rapid degradation through carbonic acid attack, particularly in the case of flowing water The importance of integrated geological characterization of prospective CO2 storage sites from the systems scale to the reservoir scale is highlighted by the SMV integrity studies There is a particular need to obtain reservoir and cap rock samples for geomechanical and geochemical testing under CO2-flooded reservoir conditions and matching of observed behavior using simulations Further work with natural gas storage and EOR analogs will likely reveal additional details of geologic features and operational parameters necessary for appropriate selection and safe operation of CO2 storage facilities Well integrity issues are clearly becoming more of a concern than geological integrity issues Development of new, resistant materials and sealants and modification of existing construction and completion protocols are essential Novel technologies for rehabilitation of old wells and leakage detection and intervention are essential needs for CO2 storage facility development in depleted oil and gas fields OPTIMIZATION The SMV optimization studies sought to leverage industry experience of gas injection, identify operational parameters that ensure rapid and secure CO2 immobilization and realize cost reduction opportunities in CO2 capture, transportation and injection Key findings include the following A survey of the CO2 EOR experience, centered on the Permian Basin for , decades, shows that performance issues are mostly attributable to inadequate reservoir characterization Leakage and other untoward incidents have not been reported (although monitoring for CO2 leakage is not in widespread use) The development of acid gas (CO2 and H2S form gas processing) injection programs in North America and elsewhere demonstrates that more hazardous gases can be safely injected and stored given appropriate pre-injection characterization, well construction design and testing, controlled injection testing and long-term monitoring Injection of CO2 into depleted gas fields is promising as infrastructure is in place and gas containment is proven Experiments and models demonstrate that CO2 compatibility with remnant hydrocarbon gases is predictable and that, given the high compressibility of CO2, storage capacity may approach five times that of the original hydrocarbon charge Injection of CO2 into saline formations comprises the largest volume opportunity for CO2 storage although compared to oil and gas reservoirs, reservoir data and infrastructure are often lacking and economic offsets are unavailable Nevertheless, well-planned saline formation CO2 injection projects could minimize costs and maximize storage through efficient well placement and operating parameters Two independent reservoir simulations that variously incorporated multiple water –CO2 interaction phenomena (e.g buoyant flow, solubility trapping, pore space capillary trapping and mineralization) show that injection at the base of the aquifer slows the progress of CO2 migration to the top of the reservoir and contact with abandoned wells A considerable proportion of the CO2 is immobilized in the decadal timeframe and the vast majority in the millennial timeframe Immobilization of CO2 via mineralization is probably minor and effective over the 10,000 ỵ year timeframe The success of CO2 injection into coal beds for the purpose of enhanced coal bed methane recovery (ECBM) and permanent CO2 storage relies on appropriate coal characterization, production history (primary production and N2 injection) and facility installation and operation Opportunities to reduce CO2 capture cost by injecting less than pure CO2 streams (,5% SOx, NOx) into aquifers or CO2 EOR fields are unlikely to damage clastic reservoir or substantially affect oil production The effects of such contaminants, particularly in the presence of water, on surface equipment (pipelines, compressors, etc.), however, is a concern Costs associated with long distance pipeline transportation of CO2 from the capture point to storage reservoir may determine the economic and technical feasibility of a CO2 storage facility New experimental and theoretical data on water solubility in CO2 and predicted corrosion/erosion rates demonstrate that existing specifications for expensive alloy steels currently in place may be relaxed given some circumstances, particularly in offshore, northern water environments Early opportunities for geological CO2 storage, particularly in regimes without carbon taxes or restrictions, will focus on settings with enhanced resource recovery potential Existing enhanced recovery projects, 1319 particularly EOR are promising, but need more study related to storage security in more diverse reservoir/cap rock types (e.g clastic as opposed to carbonates prevalent in the Permian Basin) Separation of CO2 and other impurities during gas processing to meet pipeline specifications and its subsequent injection into saline aquifers would add a relatively small incremental cost Credits might be obtained for associated SOx and NOx disposal Accurate reservoir characterization and predictions of CO2 behavior in the subsurface will, along with establishing best practices for facility operations and abandonment, ease the regulatory approval of CO2 storage projects and ensure good performance and long-term safety The poor geographic match between industrial CO2 sources and suitable geologic sinks in many areas of the World will require new thinking on transportation systems Adapting existing operation practices to extend the use of conventional materials such as carbon steel in pipelines and identifying alternative transportation schemes (e.g shipping) will determine the technical and economic viability of many CO2 capture and storage schemes MONITORING The SMV monitoring program evaluated a broad range of existing and novel technologies that might be used to improve the cost effectiveness and safety of geological CO2 storage These technologies ranged from remote detection of injected CO2 effects on the surface to direct detection near the surface to alternatives for subsurface imaging of CO2 movement Key findings are given below Existing monitoring techniques vary widely in resolution and cost Successful application depends on site-specific geologic and geographic features and required resolution level over time The satellite-based InSAR technique may have the resolution necessary to detect ground movement from CO2 injection if topographic effects are minimized Remote geobotanical acquisition produces detailed surface images but relies on indirect effects of CO2 on plant life or soils that, unless extreme, must be surveyed over an extended period of time Near-ground direct CO2 laser spectroscopy detection techniques are already in commercial use Their ability to detect CO2 depends on the rate, magnitude and type (diffuse or point) of seepage and local topography and atmospheric conditions Conventional time lapse (4D) seismic techniques have a proven ability to image CO2 movement in the subsurface but are expensive, logistically difficult over the long term and in some areas restricted due to environmental impacts Non-seismic geophysical methods may have the resolution to detect subsurface CO2 movement inexpensively over long periods without little impact on the surface Addition of natural and synthetic tracers to injected CO2 could be used to monitor the movement of injected CO2 within target reservoirs This would allow for detection of leaks from well bores and faults and in predicting gas break through in time to adjust operating parameters The Mabee Field case study identified an isotope of Xe as the ideal noble gas tracer based on distinctiveness from natural reservoir and atmospheric noble gases and cost/availability An ideal monitoring system for a given CO2 storage project would include the necessary resolution based on local subsurface and surface features, cost effectiveness and robust and stable operation with minimal environmental impact Meeting these criteria would probably require some redundancy (subsurface imaging, tracers and surface collection and detection) with reliance of different techniques over short and long terms Updating and calibration of reservoir simulations to match monitoring results will be necessary to verify CO2 storage for carbon credits and ultimately facility abandonment Development of inexpensive, instrumented monitoring wells and dual use wells (injection and post-injection monitoring) may be a cost effective, long-term solution to reservoir surveillance RISK ASSESSMENT Risk assessment methods have long been applied to familiar hazards The SMV risk assessment program includes a HSE perspective on handling and storage of CO2 and other industrial materials, simulations showing the behavior of CO2 in the vadose zone and atmosphere, strategies for early detection, intervention and remediation of CO2 leakage and the development of two comprehensive methodologies tailored to geologic CO2 storage Key findings include the following 1320 An initial survey of natural and industrial analogs to CO2 handling, storage and HSE/regulatory implications has become a much-cited contribution to geologic CO2 storage and provided guidance to the selection and execution of several of the subsequent SMV projects The comprehensive risk assessment methodology developed by TNO included features, events and processes (FEP) development and application over a multi-compartment model Testing of the model predicted no leakage over the 10,000 year timeframe (the consequence analysis was therefore not performed) Further testing is recommended The INEL probabilistic methodology, in addition to its capability of predicting the likelihood and consequences of CO2 leakage over multiple compartments, allows testing of well placement options and operation parameters for safe and effective CO2 storage in coal beds The concentration of CO2 within the vadose zone and topographic lows with eventual atmospheric dispersion was simulated for specific sites This simulation approach, in addition to its capability to identify site-specific risks of CO2 concentration near the surface, provides an instructive visualization tool for regulators and the public The impact of CO2 injection on subsurface ecology showed that, depending on lithology and water chemistry, some classes of organisms will be favored at the expense of others Whereas local extinction of useful organisms may not be an issue, possible operational parameters may be affected via microbial gas generation and porosity and permeability changes Pre-injection assessment of potential leakage pathways and their impact on economic and HSE interests comprise the basis for early leakage detection, intervention and remediation planning The credibility of the “holistic”, risk-based approach to CO2 storage encompassing the SMV integrity, optimization, monitoring and risk assessment studies is a key contribution to the science and technology of geological CO2 storage Logical steps in progressing risk assessment for CO2 storage include standardization of FEPs, benchmarking of independently developed methodologies and quantifying and bracketing risks relative to familiar hazards The development of technologies that prevent or allow response to leakage will facilitate project approval, safeguard economic and HSE interests and ensure verification and favorable liability release terms THE PATH FORWARD Progress in advancing the technology and acceptance of geological CO2 storage has accelerated in recent years to the point that several pilot/demonstration and a few commercial projects are underway or planned for the near future By 2010, geologic storage is expected on the 10 million tonne/year scale To reach the billion tonne/year scale required to achieve mid-century stabilization targets, key technical issues related to storage capacity and security need to be resolved, and integrated evaluation protocols developed Initiation of large-scale storage will be facilitated by the example of successful projects and creative approaches to source –sink matching and infrastructure development Key technical R&D needs include: integrated site evaluation protocols including accurate 3D structural/stratigraphic models and fluid flow paths/history that can be used for multi-compartment risk assessment; integration of experimental data and simulations to predict physicochemical rock response to perturbations from CO2 injection and document the types and rates of CO2 immobilization mechanisms; development of well technologies including resistant materials and construction/completion procedures, leakage intervention strategies and old well remediation; detailed leveraging of EOR and natural gas storage site characterization, operation and intervention/re- mediation protocols, optimization of oil production versus storage maximization; systematization of near and long-term monitoring and verification technology resolution with guidelines for site-specific suitability based on FEPs; validation of long-term CO2 immobilization models and development of criteria for safe facility abandonment and liability release; benchmarking of CO2 storage methodologies and quantification of storage risk relative to familiar hazards and those associated with climate change; economic tradeoffs, process integration and infrastructure considerations for CO2 capture, transportation and storage 1321 There is good reason to be optimistic that geological CO2 storage can substantially reduce atmospheric emissions in the next 10– 50 years Compared to geological storage, ocean storage presents serious environmental risks, mineral storage is slow and terrestrial storage is inefficient and probably temporary Given the present and anticipated scale of anthropogenic CO2 emissions, however, a portfolio approach to carbon mitigation that also includes conservation, renewables and nuclear energy will be required The evolution of a hydrogen economy, the ultimate approach to carbon mitigation, will nevertheless require fossil fuel use and subsequent CO2 storage To make large-scale geologic CO2 storage a reality, technical developments such as those outlined above need to be applied to moderate regulations and ensure public acceptance Collaboration of industry, governments, academic institutions and environmental NGOs has begun in earnest and should continue to expand 1323 AUTHOR INDEX VOLUME and Aaberg, R.J 213 Aasen, K.I 273, 441 Abad, A 587 Ada´nez, J 587 Akhurst, M 17 Allam, R.J 227, 451, 513 Andersen, H 203 Andresen, B 213 Apps, J.A 1173 Arkley, S.L.B 713 Arts, R 1001 Austegaard, A 925 Bachu, S 827, 867 Barbieri, G 385 Be´al, C 647 Benbow, S 1251 Benes, N.E 365 Bennison, T 713 Benson, S.M 663, 665, 1131, 1133, 1189 Berding, M 165 Bernardo, P 385 Bhown, A 165 Bidstrup, T 713 Boden, J.C 499 Bolland, O 499 Bool, L 561 Boutonnet, M 341 Bouwmeester, H.J.M 365 Bredesen, R 377 Browne, M.A.E 713 Brownscombe, T 441 Bruant, R 827 Bryant, S.L 877 Bryant, S 983 Bryant, H.G 1113 Buăcker, D 537 Cappelen, F 17 Carpentier, B 713 Casado, L 341 Cawley, S.J 713 Celaya, J 587 Celia, M.A 827 Chiang, R 227 Chinn, D 99 Choi, G.N 99 Christensen, D 17 Christopher, C 1317 Chu, R 99 Cover, W.A 1045 Czernichowski-Lauriol, I 1293 Davis, K.J 1031 de Diego, L.F 587 Degen, B 99 Dockrill, B 699 Duguid, A 827 Eimer, D Eldrup, N Evans, J.P Evans, B.J 91, 189 189 699 751 Falk-Pedersen, O 133 Fuller, R 827 Garcı´a-Labiano, F 587 Gasda, S.E 827 Gasperikova, E 1071 Gaus, I 1293 Gaya´n, P 587 Gerdes, K 441 Glasser, R.P 321 Grønvold, M.S 133 Griffin, T 537 Grigg, R.B 853 Gupta, A 955 Gupta, N 955 Hartog, J 17 Haug, K 867 Heath, J 699 Heggum, G 925 Hepple, R.P 1143, 1189 Heyn, R.H 189 Hindin, B 955 Hofbauer, H 605 Holloway, S 713 Holmberg, D 537 Holysh, M 257 Hoversten, G.M 999, 1071 Howard, H 561 Huestis, D.L 165 Hufton, J.R 227 Hurst, P 117, 409, 583 Imai, N Imbus, S Ishida, K Ivens, N 133 673, 1317 133 451, 513 Johns, G 17 Johnson, J.W 787 Juliussen, O 189 Kerr, H.R 1, 655 Ketzer, J.M 713 Kirby, G.A 713 Kirchner, D 699 Klette, H 377 Kolesar, P.T 699 Kongshaug, K.O 937 Kreft, E 1293 Krishanamurthy, S 165 Kronberger, B 605 Kruidhof, H 365 Kumar, A 877 Kuuskraa, V 37 Kvamsdal, H.M 499 Lake, L.W 877, 983 Larring, Y 377 Le Gallo, Y 713 Lee, A 17 Leijnse, A.L 1293 Liang, J.-T 897, 1263 Loăffler, G 605 Luiten, M.W.J 365 Lyngfelt, A 625 Mølnvik, M 925 Maas, J 851 Malhotra, R 165 McDonald, C 513 McLarney, M 189 Melien, T 47 Mene´ndez, M 341 Meyer, J 213 Middleton, P 227, 409 Miles, N.L 1031 1324 Miracca, I 441, 583 Mo, R 925 Monzyk, B 955 Morin, J.-X 647 Morris, J.P 787 Mundschau, M.V 291 Myer, L.R 1263 Nassos, S 341 Nepveu, M.N 1293 Nimz, G.J 1113 Nitao, J.J 787 Noh, M.H 877 Obdam, A.N.M 1293 Ohrn, T.R 321 Oldenburg, C.M 685, 1205 Onstott, T.C 1217 Orlic, B 1293 Paul Hurst, 157 Perry, K.F 815 Pex, Paul P.A.C 307 Pickles, W.L 1045 Pina, M.P 341 Pope, G.A 877 Pre´vost, J.-H 827 Rackers, K.G 321 Radonjic, M 827 Raeder, H 377 Ricci, S 955 Richen, P.L 99 Rojas, S 341 Rosen, L 561 Thunman, H 625 Torfs, P 1293 Sammells, A.F 291 Sass, B 955 Saunders, M R 713 Savage, D 1251 Scherer, G.W 827 Schuătt, H 767 Seiersten, M 937 Senior, B 17 Sepehrnoori, K 877 Shilling, N.Z 427 Shipton, Z.K 699 Shuler, P 1015 Siggins, A.F 751 Simmonds, M 441, 451, 477, 489, 513 Simons, G 427 Sirman, J 561 Sjøvoll, M 189 Spangenberg, E 767 Stein, V 513 Stenhouse, M 1251 Stevens, S.H 687 Streit, J.E 751 Swang, O 189 Switzer, L 561 Unger, A.A.J 1205 Urbiztondo, M.A 341 van Delft, Y.C 307 van der Grift, B 1293 van Kesteren, W 1293 Vichit-Vadakan, W 827 Vigeland, B 273 Walker, G 117, 409, 477, 489 Weist, E.L 227 Wen, H 99 Weydahl, T 925 White, V 227, 451, 513 Wickens, L 713 Wigand, M 767 Wikramaratna, R 713 Wildenborg, A.F.B 1293 Williams, A 699 Winthaegen, P 1001 Wipfler, E.L 1293 Wo, S 897, 1263 Wo´jcik, R 1293 Wotzak, G.P 427 Wyngaard, J.C 1031 Xie, X 291 Tang, Y 1015 Thomas, D.C Thompson, A 17 Thompson, D 561 Yackly, K.A 427 Zhou, W 1251 1325 SUBJECT INDEX VOLUMES and abandoned well, 679, 702, 710, 737– 8, 745–8, 828–9, 831, 834, 838, 842 –3, 845– 7, 952, 1134– 6, 1138–9, 1180, 1183, 1186, 1190, 1195– 6, 1199, 1206, 1253, 1255, 1258, 1318 Absorption, chemical, 10–11, 100, 136, 562, 564, 573, 956, 958–9, 962 Absorption, physical, 11 acid gas injection, 676, 851, 875, 926, 935 acid gas, 11, 97, 100, 103, 200, 257, 261, 267–8, 676–7, 772, 847, 851, 868 –70, 872– 5, 926, 933, 935, 957, 961–2, 967, 976 –7, 1318 Adsorption, electric swing, 157, 161, 163 Adsorption, pressure swing, 91, 161, 165, 168 –9, 175, 179, 182, 188, 207, 210, 227, 229, 232–4, 261, 266, 271, 273, 956, 958 Adsorption, temperature swing, 11, 196, 459 Advanced boiler, 446, 563–8, 571–8 Advanced solvent, 14, 658 Advanced syngas generation, 12 Advanced zero emission power (AZEP), 446 Alaska Scenario, 49, 52– 3, 60, 64, 75, 161, 209 –11, 250, 252, 254, 258, 538–40, 553 Alberta Basin, 670, 676, 831– 3, 845, 851, 869, 871–2, 874–5 Alkanolamine, 189, 979 Amine CO2 Capture, 100 –1, 103, 109, 111, 114 –15 amine, 5, 10, 12, 14, 37, 41, 43– 4, 47, 50– 2, 54, 60–1, 63–4, 71, 73, 75– 6, 78, 92 –6, 99–101, 103–4, 106, 108 –11, 113– 18, 120–1, 124, 127, 130–1, 133–8, 142–7, 150 –1, 153– 4, 161, 163, 165, 205, 208, 213, 258, 273, 409, 422, 425, 538, 564, 575 –6, 677, 692, 695, 791, 852, 926, 930, 934, 956 –7, 960 –70, 976– 7, 979 anaerobe, 680, 1147, 1218–19 atmospheric CO2 monitoring, 1202 Autothermal reformer, 227, 231, 412–13, 423, 453, 469, 471, 473, 515, 534 Autothermal reforming, 204, 209, 227, 248, 412 Avoided CO2 costs, 66, 269 Baseline cases, 209 Baseline study, 119, 453 BAT baseline, 48 Best available technology (BAT), 48, 58, 81, 100, 117–18 Best integrated technology (BIT), 94 biosphere, 667, 680–1, 1042, 1069, 1147, 1192, 1246– 7, 1252–3, 1301, 1305–6, 1308–9, 1313–14 bulk moduli, 776–8 Canadian scenario, 42, 49, 54 –5, 60, 62, 70, 203, 209, 258 –60, 265, 268–70 CaO–CaCO3 cycle, 213, 225 cap rock (see caprock), 1001, 1004– 7, 1011–12, 1133–5, 1138, 1140, 1169, 1190, 1192, 1254, 1259–60, 1307, 1317, 1319 cap rock integrity, 675, 688, 691–3, 695 –6, 711, 788, 790–1, 809, 811, 823, 1005– 7, 1012, 1134, 1307 capillary barrier, 731, 1138 capillary number, 776, 784, 985, 988 caprock, 13, 818–19, 824 Carbon fibre composite molecular sieve (CFCMS), 95, 157 carbon isotope, 689, 707 carbonic acid, 837– 9, 843, 847, 942, 974, 976–7, 991–2, 1099, 1222, 1240, 1318 cement plug, 736, 747–8, 828–9, 1002–3, 1006 cement, 675, 694–6, 703, 705, 709, 736, 746– 8, 770, 794–6, 810, 821– 2, 828–9, 831–3, 835 –43, 845–7, 862, 868– 9, 1002–3, 1006, 1009, 1073, 1136, 1159–60, 1181, 1183–4, 1187, 1196, 1199, 1264–5, 1278, 1288, 1301, 1305, 1307, 1309 Ceramic membranes, 9, 208–09, 273, 275, 291, 375, 444, 563 –5, 578 Chemical looping combustion (CLC), 446 Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFB) 441, 448, 583, 585, 586, 606–7, 613, 617– 18, 620, 647–54 CO2 avoided cost, 52, 57, 73, 79, 203, 208– 9, 211, 269, 442, 446, 448 CO2 Capture and Storage Project (CCP), 28, 31, 35, 659, 713 CO2 Capture Project (CCP), 2, 37, 99, 117, 190, 203, 228, 257, 307, 409, 510, 538, 643, 663, 765, 923, 952, 1110, 1216, 1289 CO2 Capture, –4, –15, 18– 25, 27 –35, 37–48, 50, 52, 54– 6, 58, 66, 69, 71, 73, 76, 79, 92 –3, 95– 7, 99–101, 103, 109, 111, 114–31, 133–4, 138, 140, 143–4, 148, 153, 163, 187, 190, 200, 203 –5, 208, 210–11, 214, 217, 219, 222, 225 –6, 228, 256 –60, 266, 268 –70, 273, 288–90, 307, 312, 374, 386, 409–10, 412, 418, 422, 424–5, 428, 442, 444, 446, 448, 452 –3, 467– 1, 473, 487, 490, 494 –7, 509–10, 514, 517, 529–31, 533 –5, 538, 548–4, 558, 562–5, 573–8, 605–7, 614, 620, 625, 642 –3, 656–8, 663, 666, 670, 677, 679, 711, 714, 738, 748, 765, 811, 864, 894 –5, 901, 923, 935, 939, 952, 956–7, 963–4, 969, 976–7, 979, 995, 1029, 1110, 1140, 1185, 1201– 2, 1216, 1261, 1289, 1318–20 1326 CO2 conditioning, 852 CO2 dissolution, 678, 730–1, 893–4, 992, 1212 CO2 enhanced gas recovery, 27–8, 30, 32, 46, 665, 669 CO2 enhanced oil recovery, 685, 1137, 1265 CO2 Monitoring, 19–20, 1012, 1019, 1023, 1029, 1096, 1117, 1126, 1202, 1261 CO2 reservoir, 666, 669, 685, 690, 692, 696, 700, 709, 711, 788, 794, 797, 801, 805, 808 –11, 860, 862, 1035, 1039– 40, 1137, 1186, 1202, 1304 CO2 saturation, 674, 678, 731, 744, 775 –6, 779, 799, 1075– 7, 1080, 1083, 1088, 1091, 1093, 1095, 1109– 10 CO2 separation membrane, 11, 13, 95, 658– 9, 699 CO2 Separation, 11, 12, 14, 47, 82, 92, 95– 7, 187, 205, 214 –15, 256, 266, 275, 306, 339, 479–80, 484–6, 491, 494, 496, 564, 603, 620, 643, 658, 852, 935, 969 CO2 Sequestration, 30, 33, 39, 45, 94, 510, 529, 562, 564, 675, 811, 822, 824–5, 846 –7, 852, 923, 952, 977, 1012, 1047, 1074, 1110, 1187 CO2 solubility, 134, 739, 794, 842, 847, 878–9, 882, 888 CO2 Storage, 6, 10, 13, 19–22, 27–8, 32, 35, 42, 45, 657, 668–70, 674–7, 679–81, 685– 6, 688– 9, 694–6, 709, 711, 714–15, 719, 732–4, 737–8, 743, 752, 755–6, 758, 760–1, 763–5, 768, 788, 791, 794, 798, 808–11, 816–18, 821–5, 839, 851–2, 860, 862–4, 874–5, 878, 883, 886, 892– 5, 898, 901–2, 914, 917, 938, 956, 969, 979, 984–5, 994, 1002, 1011–12, 1029, 1038–9, 1040– 1, 1072–3, 1077, 1093, 1107, 1114–20, 1124, 1126–7, 1131, 1134, 1136, 1138, 1140, 1147, 1152, 1159, 1178, 1185– 7, 1190–1, 1194–5, 1202, 1207, 1211, 1213, 1252, 1254, 1256, 1258, 1264–5, 1277–81, 1288– 9, 1294, 1303– 4, 1308, 1312– 15, 1318–21 CO2 Verification, 28, 851, 853, 864, 1001 Coal gasification, 27, 39, 42 –4, 187, 668, 960 coalbed methane reservoir, 668, 923, 977, 1289 Coalbed Methane, 46, 666, 668– 70, 898, 923, 977, 1264– 8, 1277, 1288–9 coalbed, 46, 666, 668–70, 898, 901, 904–6, 908–9, 916, 922 –3, 977, 1202, 1264–9, 1277, 1278, 1288– 9, 1315 Coke Gasification, 42, 44, 48, 54–5, 118, 258, 410, 490, 979 Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGT), Combustion Case Studies, Common economic model (CEM), 37, 47 Compact reformer, 207, 210 compression, 7, 9, 10, 42, 93, 95, 103– 4, 107–11, 114–15, 120–4, 127, 129, 148, 162, 205, 222, 227, 234, 250, 253, 267, 288, 322, 414, 423, 428, 448, 452–3, 455–62, 464– 7, 469– 72, 479 –80, 483 –6, 491, 495 –6, 501– 3, 505–9, 514, 516, 518, 520, 525, 527, 529, 531, 534, 541, 543, 548 –52, 558, 564–5, 570–2, 575– 6, 674, 676–7, 758, 760, 771, 775–6, 784–5, 841, 851–2, 868, 926 –7, 930–5, 939, 951, 956–7, 961–3, 970 –4, 976 –7, 979, 1289 confined space hazard, 1163, 1166, 1169 corrosion, 103, 118, 135, 153, 337, 458, 462, 464, 676–7, 692, 695, 772, 781, 822, 829, 837, 845 –7, 852, 861 –2, 868– 9, 926, 930, 932–4, 938–52, 962–3, 965, 970, 973–7, 979, 1002, 1006, 1162, 1184, 1190, 1255, 1257–8, 1278, 1288, 1307, 1318 Cost efficient design, 41, 99 coupled modeling, 680, 1206–8, 1213, 1215 Cryogenic air separation units (ASU) 49–51, 61, 63, 71–3, 81, 234, 244, 248–250, 254, 261, 268, 270, 409, 411, 451–4, 458–61, 467, 469, 473, 483 –86, 489, 491, 493–7, 500, 502, 507, 513, 515, 517, 521–2 Cryogenic distillation, 11, 458 –510, 521 –2 depleted oil and gas reservoir, 7, 667–8, 670, 819, 1134, 1137 dioxide, 2, 3, 5, 7–8, 12–13, 18, 21, 27, 47, 92–7, 99, 100, 102, 113, 115–16, 130, 155, 179, 183, 188–92, 195– 6, 198– 200, 210, 213, 218, 229, 232, 238, 241, 250 –1, 254, 257 –8, 260–1, 263, 265 –7, 273, 281–2, 288, 307, 311, 314, 319, 375, 411 –16, 452, 459, 463, 465 –7, 475, 478, 484, 490 –1, 497, 510, 539 –41, 549–50, 553–4, 557 –8, 569, 605 –6, 629, 670, 685, 696, 711, 733, 740, 747 –8, 811, 833, 840, 845, 847, 875, 895, 898, 916, 923, 935, 938, 952, 960, 971, 974, 977, 979, 995, 1016–17, 1020–9, 1042, 1069, 1136–7, 1140, 1147–52, 1154, 1157–60, 1162–6, 1168, 1170, 1184–7, 1195, 1201–2, 1211, 1253–4, 1289, 1315 dissolution, 280, 297, 670, 674, 678, 685, 716, 720, 729–31, 737, 740, 744, 776, 781, 784– 5, 792, 794, 796, 808 –11, 837, 840, 847, 864, 874, 878, 880, 882–3, 890, 892– 4, 957, 977, 984, 991 –4, 1002, 1006, 1138, 1159, 1196, 1201, 1212, 1222, 1240, 1246–8, 1254–5, 1257, 1265, 1295, 1302 Dynamic CO2 adsorption, 157–8 early detection, 674, 679, 1056, 1140, 1193–4, 1200, 1201, 1319 ecosystem effect, 679 ecosystem, 21, 23, 669 –70, 675, 679–80, 710, 1032–3, 1038–9, 1042, 1138–9, 1147, 1152, 1158, 1168–70, 1192, 1194, 1209 1327 eddy covariance, 1032–5, 1040, 1042, 1201–2 effective normal stress, 752 –3, 800, 804 Electric swing adsorption, 157 electrical resistivity, 677–8, 785, 1072–3, 1075, 1090, 1109–10 electromagnetic monitoring, 669, 677, 1011, 1071 enhanced coalbed methane, 669–70, 898, 1264, 1277, 1289 Enhanced hydrogen production, 204 enhanced oil recovery, 7, 22, 47, 117, 119, 125, 189, 257–8, 452, 514, 540, 670, 679, 685, 748, 864, 872, 895, 926, 963, 979, 984–5, 995, 1023, 1047, 1072, 1114– 15, 1137, 1152, 1265 existing CO2 storage project, 1303 Features–Events–Processess, 713, 1139 FEP, 680– 1, 733–5, 1002–7, 1012, 1252–61, 1294– 9, 1301–2, 1305–6, 1313–14, 1320 fire suppressant, 1162–3, 1166, 1170 Flue gas recycle, 9, 10, 14, 40, 100, 114, 442 –3, 448, 457, 478 –82, 484 –7, 490– 2, 494–7, 521 fluid flow, 674– 5, 720– 1, 726, 729–31, 737–9, 744, 779, 790, 824, 861, 863, 977, 995, 1096–7, 1110, 1179, 1208, 1267, 1277, 1289, 1320 Forties Oil Field, 685 gas chromatography, 291, 295, 1022 gas storage, 14, 24–5, 666, 669–70, 675, 679, 685, 737, 816 –25, 874, 1134–5, 1137–8, 1140, 1194– 5, 1201, 1318, 1320 Gas-to-liquids, 12 –14, 203, 211, 927 Gassmann model, 674, 776, 785 geochemical monitoring, 677 geochemical reaction, 685, 878, 984, 1131, 1224 geomechanical deformation, 788, 790– 1, 797, 799–801, 808–11 geomechanical effect, 674, 685, 752, 763 –4, 808–10 geomechanical, 669, 674, 680, 685, 711, 752, 763–4, 788–94, 797, 799 –801, 803, 807–11, 1140, 1264– 5, 1288, 1318 geophysical monitoring, 1002, 1005–6, 1097 global carbon cycle, 1131, 1147 Grangemouth Advanced CO2 Capture Project (GRACE), 605, 643 Grangemouth Refinery, 48, 442, 445, 447, 453, 514, 586, 607, 714, 737 Grangemouth, 47–8, 117 –18, 125, 127–31, 386, 409–11, 414, 417 –18, 421 –3, 425, 442, 445–7, 452–3, 456, 467, 471, 514, 517, 527, 586, 588, 605, 607, 619–20, 643, 714 –15, 737 gravity number, 985, 988–9, 994 gravity, 257–8, 321, 569, 626, 677–8, 691–2, 719, 734, 739, 776, 785, 872, 878, 888, 894, 985–6, 988–9, 994, 1003, 1005–6, 1011, 1073, 1075–7, 1080, 1084, 1102, 1106–8, 1110, 1114, 1136, 1211 GRAZ-cycle, 444, 499, 501, 505 –9 groundwater, 23–4, 27, 676–7, 679–80, 693, 696, 700, 703–4, 707 –11, 715, 720, 726, 736, 742, 868, 914, 923, 1007, 1107, 1114, 1118, 1124–7, 1136, 1138, 1155, 1174, 1176–7, 1183, 1190, 1195–7, 1199, 1201–2, 1247, 1256, 1258, 1264, 1304 human health impact, 679 human health, 23, 674, 679, 1016, 1131, 1136, 1138–9, 1152, 1162, 1169, 1177, 1282, 1303 hydrodynamic trapping, 793–4, 1295 Hydrogen economy, 12, 14, 28– 9, 211, 1321 Hydrogen fuel, 13, 205, 207–10, 213, 226, 228, 247, 250–1, 256, 273–4, 292, 361, 424, 428, 429, 473, 534, 620, 643, 658 Hydrogen membrane reformer, 40, 42, 47, 62, 64, 203, 210 –11, 273 –7, 285, 288–9 Hydrogen mixed conducting membrane, 273, 280 Hydrogen separation membrane, 6, 321, 323, 337 Hydrogen transport membrane, 12, 292, 305 hyperspectral geobotanical, 1049, 1202 hyperspectral, 677–8, 1020, 1029, 1047–53, 1055–6, 1058, 1061–4, 1069, 1202 impurities, 11, 20, 92, 149, 153, 215, 305, 454, 459, 483–4, 491, 493, 676 –7, 679, 791, 810, 852, 926, 934, 956 –7, 960– 1, 963–4, 966, 970 –1, 973–4, 976–7, 984–5, 987 –91, 994 –5, 1196, 1319 In Salah, 666, 668 In-duct burner, 489–91, 493–4 industrial sources and uses of CO2, 1159 industry analog, 677 infrared analysis, 1019, 1021 injection of hazardous wastes, 1177 injection pressure, 275, 736, 742, 761, 798, 868, 872, 879, 914, 932, 984, 1182, 1194, 1199, 1264, 1284 injectivity, 676– 7, 794, 797, 852, 856, 858– 63, 880, 900, 902, 914, 984 –5, 990– 5, 1182, 1265, 1277–8, 1288 Inorganic membranes 11, 365 Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), 12, 257–8, 564 Integrated reforming reaction, 213, 226 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 1202 International Energy Agency (IEA), 2, 18 –19, 30, 204, 668, 680, 1251 1328 International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas Research and Development Programme (IEA GHG), 18– 19 International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association (IPIECA), 18 Ion transport membrane, (ITM) 38, 41, 44, 49–51, 61, 63, 71 –73, 81, 369, 374, 377, 385, 441, 444–6, 449, 513, 515–28, 531, 533 –5, 579 isotopes, 300, 678, 688– 9, 707–8, 811, 1029, 1114, 1116, 1118–19, 1124, 1126 isotopic composition, 706, 1115–16, 1118, 1120– Jackson Dome, 689, 691–4 Kyoto Treaty, 27, 32, 59, 386 leak detection, 675, 678, 765, 817, 824, 1036, 1038– 41, 1055, 1201 leakage, 42, 225, 275, 278 –9, 283, 374, 380, 447, 471, 569–70, 586, 606, 610, 614–17, 625, 630–1, 643, 667, 674–5, 677–81, 685, 692, 700, 702– 3, 705, 709 –11, 715, 726, 731, 737–8, 743–4, 747–8, 811, 816 –23, 825, 828–31, 845–7, 851, 868, 874 –5, 894, 917, 999, 1002–3, 1005, 1007, 1012, 1016–17, 1023–9, 1040, 1050, 1062, 1069, 1110, 1117–18, 1120, 1124, 1126–7, 1131, 1134– 6, 1138–40, 1152, 1155, 1159, 1169, 1177, 1182– 5, 1190–7, 1199–1201, 1206– 7, 1209–13, 1215, 1264–5, 1267–9, 1273, 1276–80, 1283–5, 1288– 9, 1295–6, 1302–6, 1309–14, 1318–20 leaky CO2 reservoir London Dumping Convention, 19, 21 London Protocol, 19, 21 Low recycle oxyfuel, 497 materials selection, 852, 939 Matiant-cycle, 444, 499 –501, 506 –509 McElmo Dome, 689–95, 709, 1115– 16, 1122– Membrane contactor module, 139, 148 Membrane reactors, 12–13, 280, 321, 335 –8, 361–2, 375, 407 Membrane separation, 13, 95, 412, 416, 418 –21, 423, 956 Membrane shift reactor, 321–2, 423 Membrane water gas shift reaction (MWGS), 50–1, 61–3, 71–3, 81–2, 321–3, 325, 327–32, 335, 337–8 Metal carbonates, 213 Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), 957, 962 micro-seismic activity, 751, 759–60 microbe, 680, 974, 1147, 1152, 1154, 1168, 1170 microbial ecosystem, 1217 microorganism, 680, 1049, 1131, 1147, 1160, 1168, 1218–19, 1222, 1224–5, 1235, 1240, 1246–8 migration pathway, 706–7, 709, 715, 1011–12, 1108, 1258 mineral trapping, 667, 669 –70, 793– 4, 796–7, 810–11, 847, 893 –5, 1138, 1201, 1295 mitigation, 2, 3, 5, 23, 27, 30, 32– 3, 39, 42, 46, 120, 129, 188, 226, 443, 510, 553, 657, 669 –70, 675, 679, 681, 694, 817 –18, 821 –3, 846, 1131, 1134, 1137–40, 1202, 1321 Mixed conducting membranes, 278 mobility ratio, 677, 985, 988 –9, 994 Mohr diagram, 752–3, 757, 764, 1269 Molecular sieve, 95, 127, 157, 361–2, 414, 458, 930, 934, 957 monitoring and verification, 13, 18, 28, 33–5, 37, 41–2, 669–70, 681, 851, 864, 1140, 1201–2, 1320 monitoring, 8, 13, 18–21, 28, 33–5, 37, 41–2, 257, 387, 449, 630, 657 –8, 663, 668–70, 674 –5, 677–81, 688, 694 –5, 701, 711, 752, 758 –61, 763–5, 768, 785, 811, 816– 18, 821–5, 851, 860–1, 863–4, 869, 923, 999, 1002–7, 1010–12, 1016, 1019–20, 1023–4, 1029, 1036, 1040–2, 1047, 1051, 1068, 1072, 1077, 1093, 1096–7, 1102, 1107, 1109– 10, 1114– 20, 1124– 7, 1131, 1134–40, 1152, 1179–80, 1182–7, 1190, 1194, 1196, 1201–2, 1261, 1283–4, 1289, 1312, 1314–15, 1318–20 Monoethanolamine (MEA), 10, 92, 189, 205, 957, 962 multi-barrier concept, 679 National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), 620, 643, 1093 natural analog, 688, 694– 6, 788, 794, 797, 808, 811, 1134, 1140, 1303 natural gas storage, 14, 24, 669 –70, 675, 679, 685, 816–18, 823, 825, 1134–5, 1137–8, 1140, 1194–5, 1201, 1318, 1320 NGCAS, 674, 713 nitric acid 677, 967, 976 noble gas, 112–17, 678, 688–9, 691–2, 696, 788, 811, 1029, 1114– 20, 1319 noble gas isotope, 688, 691, 788, 811, 1116, 1118–19, 1124, 1126 no-migration petition, 1179 Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 3, 17, 23, 28–9, 680–1, 1321 Norwegian scenario, 49, 52, 60, 70, 75, 209–10, 258, 446 numerical modeling, 768, 847, 874, 895, 1097, 1107, 1126–7 1329 occupational health standards for carbon dioxide, 1163 OSPAR Convention, 21–2, 35 overpressure, 283, 390, 694, 723–6, 728 –9, 736 –7, 740, 743 –4, 747 –8, 871, 874, 1012, 1182, 1265 Oxyfuel baseline, 14, 442 –3, 446, 448 Oxyfuel combustion, 9, 10, 14–15, 471, 478–9, 485–7, 490, 514, 534, 605 oxygen isotope, 706, 1029 Oxygen transport membranes (OTM), 42, 441, 445–6, 561–570, 572, 575 –579 Palladium alloy membranes, 318, 384 Palladium membranes, 295–6, 298, 300, 362, 383 Paradox Basin, 700– 2, 704, 707, 709 Pd-zeolite membranes, 341, 344, 346, 348, 351–4, 356, 358 –60 performance assessment, 658, 681, 1134, 1261 Permian Basin, 676, 693, 851, 854–7, 859– 63, 995, 1114– 15, 1120, 1318–19 Petroleum coke gasification, 44, 118, 258, 410, 490 phase diagram, 768, 875, 971–3 Physical solvents, 956 physical trapping, 667, 669 physiology, 1147–8, 1152, 1154, 1158–9, 1164, 1168, 1170 pipeline transportation, 70, 543, 679, 927, 932–3, 935, 1318 Policy & Incentive (P&I), 3, 17–18, 21, 23, 25, 34–5, 660 Post-combustion separation, 95, 97, 117, 658 Pre-combustion decarbonization, 7, 12, 47, 441, 538, 655 Pre-combustion separation, 42 probabilistic risk assessment, 669, 680, 1131, 1264, 1277, 1280, 1283, 1288 Prudhoe Bay, 48–9, 117–19, 121–4, 127, 130–1, 228, 428 –30, 432, 436–7, 540, 558, 1110 Rangely Field, 678, 1023 reactive transport, 674, 685, 696, 788– 90, 809–11, 895 regulation, 2–5, 18, 27– 8, 32–3, 35, 41, 137, 142, 215, 679, 1119, 1131, 1134–5, 1137– 8, 1140, 1149, 1151–2, 1155, 1159, 1162–6, 1168–70, 1174, 1176–9, 1183–7, 1194–5, 1201, 1265, 1282, 1295, 1304, 1321 regulators, 6, 23, 680– 1, 868, 1320 relative permeability, 717, 730, 790, 859, 874, 878–80, 884–6, 888, 909, 913–14, 922, 988, 990, 992 –5 remediation, 669 –70, 679– 80, 819, 861 –2, 995, 999, 1029, 1131, 1134–5, 1138–40, 1184, 1190–1, 1194–7, 1199–1202, 1264, 1279, 1283, 1314–15, 1319–20 remote sensing, 13, 677–8, 818, 824 –5, 1020, 1023, 1029, 1049, 1055, 1069, 1110, 1194, 1202 reservoir modeling, 680, 923, 1283, 1289 reservoir simulation, 674, 676, 726, 730, 818, 824, 1012, 1075, 1207, 1258, 1273, 1279, 1318–19 residual gas trapping, 667, 1138, 1201 risk assessment, 13, 42, 657, 663, 668–70, 678–81, 720, 732 –7, 739, 744–5, 768, 811, 1124, 1131, 1134, 1138–40, 1163, 1206– 7, 1264, 1277, 1279–83, 1288, 1302, 1314– 15, 1319– 20 risk mitigation, 669, 679, 1134, 1138–9 saline aquifer, 7, 8, 21, 31, 788, 791 –4, 797, 811, 816, 833, 846– 7, 851– 2, 875, 878, 893, 926, 1093, 1183, 1201, 1240, 1319 saline formation, 666–7, 670, 677, 763, 768, 794, 868–70, 872, 874, 895, 979, 990, 1002–3, 1094, 1318 San Juan Basin, 668, 676, 898, 914, 923, 1264, 1268, 1272, 1274, 1284, 1289 scenario analysis, 681, 1256, 1294–6, 1298, 1305, 1313, 1315 Scenario, Alaska North Slope, 41, 49, 52 –3, 60, 64, 75, 161, 209–11, 250, 252, 254, 258, 538, 540, 553 Scenario, European Refinery, 93, 586 Scenario, Western Canada, 47, 54, 56, 65, 75, 81 Scenario, Western Norway, 47, 53 –5, 58–60, 64, 75 Schrader Bluff, 670, 678, 1072– 4, 1077, 1080, 1088, 1091, 1093, 1108– 10 seal integrity, 685, 696, 711, 743, 797, 808, 917, 1002, 1264, 1305 seals and faults, 674 seepage, 674, 676, 680 –1, 692, 794, 811, 852, 898, 914, 916 –23, 1140, 1193, 1201–2, 1206–9, 1211–15, 1264, 1277–8, 1284, 1289, 1314, 1319 seismic interpretation, 720 seismic monitoring, 674, 763–5, 818, 824, 861, 1002, 1110 seismic wave attenuation, 674, 772, 779 –80, 785 Self-assembled nanoporous materials, 95, 165, 177 Sequestration, Coalbeds, Sequestration, Gas Reservoirs, Sequestration, Geologic, 1, 2, 19, 22, 27, 32–3, 82, 256, 474, 696, 1039 Sequestration, Ocean, 1, 17 Sequestration, Oil Reservoirs, Sequestration, Saline Aquifers, Sequestration, Terrestrial Ecosystem, 1330 SF6, 1116–18, 1126 shale, 666, 674, 689, 692–6, 700, 709–11, 719, 721, 723–5, 730–1, 743–4, 788, 791–4, 796–7, 800–1, 804, 808–11, 871, 1089, 1092, 1094, 1097, 1101– 2, 1174, 1195, 1265– 6, 1268, 1308–11 shear moduli, 775 –6, 778 –9, 785 Silica membranes, 307–9, 312–8, 366–7, 369, 371, 374–5, 394–5, 406 Simplified engineering standards, 93 simulation, 99, 103, 113, 138, 140, 144– 6, 150, 155, 165, 167–8, 173–4, 184–7, 225– 8, 232, 234, 238, 243–4, 248, 308, 311, 319, 407, 471, 501, 505, 523, 545, 547, 585, 601–3, 607, 617– 18, 620, 663, 668, 674 –7, 680 –1, 685, 716, 718, 720, 726–8, 730–1, 733, 737, 739, 776, 788–9, 791, 793, 797–808, 810–11, 818, 822, 824, 828, 842, 845–7, 851–2, 874, 878– 80, 882–4, 886, 889–90, 892, 895, 898–903, 906, 908 –9, 914, 916–17, 922–3, 934, 972, 991, 995, 1012, 1072– 3, 1075, 1080, 1097, 1102, 1107, 1110, 1179, 1201, 1207–8, 1210–12, 1214– 15, 1222–4, 1229, 1240, 1247, 1258, 1264, 1273–6, 1279, 1283, 1285, 1288–9, 1301– 2, 1308–11, 1314, 1318– 20 site assessment, 675, 681 Sleipner, 34, 663, 666, 668, 670, 791, 793–4, 797–8, 811, 874, 926, 933, 935, 938, 1002, 1012, 1077, 1110, 1126, 1147 Solid-state chemical sensor, 1022 solubility trapping, 667, 793– 5, 1318 Sorption enhanced water gas shift process (SEWGS), 13, 227–32, 234, 239–41, 244, 248–51, 253–6 spectrometer, 158, 178–9, 183, 344, 380, 677– 8, 1020, 1023, 1029, 1049–51, 1063, 1069, 1116 St Johns, 673, 687– 9, 691–4, 794 Stage-gate technology selection process, Steam reforming, 204–5, 213–15, 226, 273 –4, 280, 305, 343, 368, 375, 407, 412 storage capacity, 42, 666–70, 695– 6, 710, 714, 763, 794, 798, 852, 868, 1144, 1318, 1320 storage integrity, 13, 663, 675, 685, 686, 817, 1211, 1279 storage optimization, 663, 669 –70, 675 storage security, 667, 669 –70, 1138, 1319 Storage, Monitoring, and Verification (SMV), 8, 13–14, 37–8, 41 –2, 46, 64, 257, 660, 679, 851, 1069, 1317–19 streaming potential, 678, 1097, 1099 Sulfur-tolerant membranes, 42, 207– 8, 658 sulfuric acid, 142, 677 Supercritical chemical looping combustion, 653 supercritical CO2, 578, 674, 676, 679, 693, 731, 768, 774, 776, 781–2, 784 –5, 797, 811, 836, 878, 889, 894–5, 938, 952, 979, 1097, 1110, 1118, 1159, 1179, 1184–5 surface water, 23, 679, 701, 1177, 1194–5, 1199, 1206 Syngas, 12–14, 55, 203–5, 207–11, 227 –9, 231, 234, 240, 243, 248, 251, 258, 261, 266–8, 274 –5, 277, 286 –9, 307, 322, 334– 6, 413, 429–30, 432–6, 535, 564, 658 Technology Advisory Board (TAB), 37–39, 41 –2, 45, 660 Technology Advisory Board (TAB), 37–8 Technology, Development Phase, 2, 4, 6, 9–10, 12–14, 18, 28, 32 –3, 46–8, 56–7, 60, 66, 68, 92, 203 –4, 206, 208, 256, 289, 306, 339, 422, 490, 499, 509, 655, 657, 659, 788, 817, 825, 851, 935, 1020 Technology, Review and Evaluation Phase, 203, 206 Technology, Selection Phase, 4, 5, 9, 37 Town gas, 204, 362 transport, –8, 10, 12 –13, 22, 32, 34, 38, 40, 47, 60–61, 64, 70, 103, 121–2, 124, 130–1, 148, 151, 169, 173, 218, 266, 273–5, 280, 283– 4, 286, 288–9, 292, 300, 303 –5, 312, 314, 319, 362, 375, 378, 382, 386, 394, 396, 407, 410–11, 442, 444 –6, 452, 455–6, 458, 464, 470, 510, 514, 516, 518 –20, 535, 538, 543, 545, 563, 566, 589, 591, 605, 607, 611, 617, 643, 658, 674, 676– 80, 685, 692–3, 696, 707, 709–11, 714, 720, 731, 734, 736– 7, 740, 742, 746, 788 –90, 809 –11, 831, 838–9, 847, 851–2, 864, 878, 895, 901, 926–7, 930, 932– 3, 935, 938–9, 942–4, 947, 950–1, 974, 985, 1023, 1029, 1032–3, 1035, 1097, 1123, 1126, 1137, 1148–9, 1155–6, 1162, 1164, 1166, 1169–70, 1181, 1186, 1202, 1206–11, 1213, 1216, 1218, 1222, 1224, 1246–7, 1254–5, 1258, 1281, 1283, 1301–2, 1306–7, 1309, 1318–20 transportation, 5, 7–8, 47, 60, 64, 70, 122, 130, 148, 464, 470, 543, 658, 676–7, 679–80, 852, 864, 926–7, 930, 932– 3, 935, 938 –9, 942, 944, 947, 950–51, 974, 1137, 1162, 1164, 1166, 1169, 1318–20 UK scenario, 49–52, 58–9, 62–3, 75, 258, 442, 447 unconfined reservoir, 798– vadose zone, 679–80, 711, 1131, 1191, 1195–97, 1199, 1202, 1211, 1213, 1216, 1319–20 ventilation and indoor air quality, 1137, 1163, 1169 1331 WAG, 259, 280, 716–20, 733 –34, 859, 862, 895, 995, 1077, 1124, 1127, 1248, 1315 Water gas shift reaction (WGS), 39–42, 44, 46, 53, 73–4, 208, 210, 227– 229, 241, 248, 256, 258, 273, 307–8, 311–12, 314, 318, 322, 331, 365, 367, 369, 374, 377, 380, 385 –7, 392, 394, 396, 403, 405, 407, 409, 412–14, 416, 418 –19, 425 water solubility in pure CO2, 928, 943 Water-cycle, 444, 499, 500 –4, 506, 508–9 well integrity, 657, 675, 737, 1318 wellbore leakage, 700, 702–3, 709, 711 Weyburn, 42, 668, 680, 1252–9, 1261, 1303 Zeolite composite membranes 341, 344, 346, 348, 351–4, 356, 358– 60 Zeolite membranes, 342–4, 346 –51, 353, 357, 359, 361–2 Zeolite supported membranes, 477, 483 Zero-recycle oxyfuel, 477, 480–1, 486, 489