Transition to renewable energy systems

Transition to Renewable Energy Systems Edited by Detlef Stolten and Viktor Scherer Related Titles Ladewig, B., Jiang, S P., Yan, Y (eds.) Materials for Low-Temperature Fuel Cells 2012 ISBN: 978-3-527-33042-3 Bagotsky, V S Fuel Cells Problems and Solutions 2012 ISBN: 978-1-118-08756-5 Stolten, D., Scherer, V (eds.) Efficient Carbon Capture for Coal Power Plants 2011 ISBN: 978-3-527-33002-7 Wieckowski, A., Norskov, J (eds.) Fuel Cell Science Theory, Fundamentals, and Biocatalysis 2010 ISBN: 978-0-470-41029-5 Crabtree, R H Energy Production and Storage Inorganic Chemical Strategies for a Warming World 2010 ISBN: 978-0-470-74986-9 Kamm, B., Gruber, P R., Kamm, M (eds.) Biorefineries – Industrial Processes and Products Status Quo and Future Directions 2010 ISBN: 978-3-527-32953-3 Stolten, D (ed.) Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications 2010 ISBN: 978-3-527-32711-9 Transition to Renewable Energy Systems Edited by Detlef Stolten and Viktor Scherer Editors Prof Detlef Stolten Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH IEF-3: Fuel Cells Leo-Brandt-Straße IEF-3: Fuel Cells 52425 Jülich Germany Viktor Scherer Ruhr-Universität Bochum LS f Energieanlagen, IB 3/126 Universitätsstr 150 LS f Energieanlagen, IB 3/126 44780 Bochum Germany All books published by Wiley-VCH are carefully produced Nevertheless, authors, editors, and publisher not warrant the information contained in these books, including this book, to be free of errors Readers are advised to keep in mind that statements, data, illustrations, procedural details or other items may inadvertently be inaccurate Library of Congress Card No.: applied for British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at © 2013 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co KGaA, Boschstr 12, 69469 Weinheim, Germany All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages) No part of this book may be reproduced in any form – by photoprinting, microfilm, or any other means – nor transmitted or translated into a machine language without written permission from the publishers Registered names, trademarks, etc used in this book, even when not specifically marked as such, are not to be considered unprotected by law Print ISBN: ePDF ISBN: ePub ISBN: Mobi ISBN: oBook ISBN: 978-3-527-33239-7 978-3-527-67390-2 978-3-527-67389-6 978-3-527-67388-9 978-3-527-67387-2 Cover Design Formgeber, Mannheim Typesetting Manuela Treindl, Fürth Printing and Binding Betz-druck GmbH, Darmstadt Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany Printed on acid-free paper V Foreword The Federal Government set out on the road to transforming the German energy system by launching its Energy Concept on 28 September 2010 and adopting the energy package on June 2011 The intention is to make Germany one of the most energy-efficient economies in the world and to enter the era of renewable energy without delay Quantitative energy and environmental targets have been set which define the basic German energy supply strategy until 2050 Central goals are an 80–95% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared with 1990 figures, increasing the use of renewable energy to reach a 60% share of gross final energy consumption and 80% of gross electricity consumption, and reducing primary energy consumption by 50% relative to 2008 levels The Energiewende, as we call it, is among the most important challenges confronting Germany today – it is an enormous task for society as a whole Urgent technological, economic, legal, and social issues need to be addressed quickly Science and research bear a special responsibility in this process I very much welcome the comprehensive approach of the Third International Conference on Energy Process Engineering, which brings together international experts to discuss the potential of different technological options for a sustainable modern energy supply This systemic perspective will help us find out whether individual technologies such as electrolysis can provide a sound basis for a new energy supply system or for closing existing infrastructure gaps The results of this international conference will be of great importance for further development, both in Germany and elsewhere I would be happy to see our concept of a sustainable energy supply also gain ground in other countries Dr Georg Schütte State Secretary Federal Ministry of Education and Research VII Contents Foreword Preface V XXIX List of Contributors XXXI Part I Renewable Strategies 1 South Korea’s Green Energy Strategies Deokyu Hwang, Suhyeon Han, and Changmo Sung Introduction Government-Driven Strategies and Policies Focused R&D Strategies Promotion of Renewable Energy Industries Present and Future of Green Energy in South Korea References 10 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.2.1 2.3.2.2 2.3.2.3 10 Japan’s Energy Policy After the 3.11 Natural and Nuclear Disasters – from the Viewpoint of the R&D of Renewable Energy and Its Current State 13 Hirohisa Uchida Introduction 13 Energy Transition in Japan 14 Economic Growth and Energy Transition 15 Transition of Power Configuration 15 Nuclear Power Technology 17 Diversification of Energy Resource 17 Thermal Power 18 Renewable Energy Policy by Green Energy Revolution 18 Agenda with Three NP Options 18 Green Energy Revolution 19 Feed-in Tariff for RE 21 VIII Contents 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5 Renewable Energy and Hydrogen Energy 22 Solar–Hydrogen Stations and Fuel Cell Vehicles Rechargeable Batteries 23 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology 24 Stationary Use 24 Mobile Use 25 Public Acceptance 25 Conclusion 26 References 26 The Impact of Renewable Energy Development on Energy and CO2 Emissions in China 29 Xiliang Zhang, Tianyu Qi and Valerie Karplus Introduction 29 Renewable Energy in China and Policy Context 30 Energy and Climate Policy Goals in China 30 Renewable Electricity Targets 31 Data and CGEM Model Description 31 Model Data 33 Renewable Energy Technology 33 Scenario Description 35 Economic Growth Assumptions 35 Current Policy Assumptions 37 Cost and Availability Assumptions for Energy Technologies 38 Results 39 Renewable Energy Growth Under Policy 39 Impact of Renewable Energy Subsidies on CO2 Emissions Reductions 40 Impact of a Cost Reduction for Renewable Energy After 2020 42 Conclusion 44 References 45 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.6 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 5.2 5.3 22 The Scottish Government’s Electricity Generation Policy Statement 47 Colin Imrie Introduction 47 Overview 47 Executive Summary 48 References 65 Transition to Renewables as a Challenge for the Industry – the German Energiewende from an Industry Perspective 67 Carsten Rolle, Dennis Rendschmidt Introduction 67 Targets and current status of the Energiewende 67 Industry view: opportunities and challenges 69 Contents 5.4 5.5 The way ahead 73 Conclusion 74 References 74 The Decreasing Market Value of Variable Renewables: Integration Options and Deadlocks 75 Lion Hirth and Falko Ueckerdt The Decreasing Market Value of Variable Renewables Mechanisms and Quantification 77 Profile Costs 78 Balancing Costs 83 Grid-Related Costs 83 Findings 83 Integration Options 84 A Taxonomy 84 Profile Costs 85 Balancing Costs 88 Grid-Related Costs 89 Conclusion 90 References 90 6.1 6.2 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.4 7.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.1.1 7.3.1.2 7.3.1.3 7.3.2 7.3.2.1 7.3.2.2 7.3.2.3 7.3.3 7.3.3.1 7.3.3.2 7.3.3.3 7.3.4 7.4 7.4.1 7.4.1.1 7.4.1.2 7.4.1.3 75 Transition to a Fully Sustainable Global Energy System 93 Yvonne Y Deng, Kornelis Blok, Kees van der Leun, and Carsten Petersdorff Introduction 93 Methodology 94 Definitions 95 Results – Demand Side 97 Industry 97 Industry – Future activity 97 Industry – Future Intensity 98 Industry – Future Energy Demand 99 Buildings 99 Buildings – Future Activity 99 Buildings – Future Intensity 101 Buildings – Future Energy Demand 102 Transport 103 Transport – Future Activity 103 Transport – Future Intensity 105 Transport – Future Energy Demand 107 Demand Sector Summary 107 Results – Supply Side 108 Supply Potential 108 Wind 109 Water 109 Sun 110 IX X Contents 7.4.1.4 7.4.1.5 7.4.2 7.5 7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.6 Earth 110 Bioenergy 110 Results of Balancing Demand and Supply Discussion 112 Power Grids 112 The Need for Policy 113 Sensitivity of Results 113 Conclusion 114 References 115 Appendix 118 The Transition to Renewable Energy Systems – On the Way to a Comprehensive Transition Concept 119 Uwe Schneidewind, Karoline Augenstein, and Hanna Scheck Why Is There a Need for Change? – The World in the Age of the Anthropocene 119 A Transition to What? 121 Introducing the Concept of “Transformative Literacy” 122 Four Dimensions of Societal Transition 123 On the Structural Interlinkages of the Four Dimensions of Transitions 124 Infrastructures and Technologies – the Technological Perspective 125 Financial Capital – the Economic Perspective 127 Institutions/Policies – the Institutional Perspective 129 Cultural Change/Consumer Behavior – the Cultural Perspective 131 Techno-Economists, Institutionalists, and Culturalists – Three Conflicting Transformation Paradigms 132 References 135 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.4.1 8.4.2 8.4.3 8.4.4 8.4.5 8.5 9.1 9.1.1 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.3 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 9.5 9.5.1 111 Renewable Energy Future for the Developing World 137 Dieter Holm Introduction 137 Aim 137 Descriptions and Definitions of the Developing World 138 The Developing World 138 The Developing World in Transition 138 Emerging Economies – BRICS 140 Can Renewable Energies Deliver? 141 Opportunities for the Developing World 142 Poverty Alleviation through RE Jobs 142 A New Energy Infrastructure Model 143 Great RE Potential of Developing World 144 Underdeveloped Conventional Infrastructure 144 Development Framework 145 National Renewable Energies Within Global Guard Rails 145 Contents 9.5.2 9.5.2.1 9.5.2.2 9.6 9.6.1 9.6.1.1 9.6.1.2 9.6.1.3 9.6.2 9.6.2.1 9.6.2.2 9.6.2.3 9.6.2.4 9.6.3 9.6.4 9.6.5 9.6.6 9.7 9.7.1 9.7.2 9.8 10 The International Context: Global Guard Rails 145 Socio-Economic Guard Rails 145 Ecological Guard Rails 146 Policies Accelerating Renewable Energies in Developing Countries 148 Regulations Governing Market/Electricity Grid Access and Quotas Mandating Capacity/Generation 148 Feed-in Tariffs 149 Quotas – Mandating Capacity/Generation 149 Applicability in the Developing World 149 Financial Incentives 151 Tax relief 152 Rebates and Payments 152 Low-Interest Loans and Guaranties 152 Addressing Subsidies and Prices of Conventional Energy 152 Industry Standards, Planning Permits, and Building Codes 153 Education, Information, and Awareness 153 Ownership, Cooperatives, and Stakeholders 153 Research, Development, and Demonstration 154 Priorities – Where to Start 154 Background 154 Learning from Past Mistakes 154 Conclusions and Recommendations 156 References 157 An Innovative Concept for Large-Scale Concentrating Solar Thermal Power Plants 159 Ulrich Hueck 10.1 Considerations for Large-Scale Deployment 159 10.1.1 Technologies to Produce Electricity from Solar Radiation 160 10.1.2 Basic Configurations of Existing CSP Plants 160 10.1.3 Review for Large-Scale Deployment 161 10.1.3.1 Robustness of Technology to Produce Electricity 161 10.1.3.2 Capability to Produce Electricity Day and Night 161 10.1.3.3 Type of Concentration of Solar Radiation 162 10.1.3.4 Shape of Mirrors for Concentration of Solar Radiation 163 10.1.3.5 Area for Solar Field 164 10.1.3.6 Technology to Capture Heat from Solar Radiation 165 10.1.3.7 Working Fluids and Heat Storage Media 165 10.1.3.8 Direct Steam Generation 168 10.1.3.9 Inlet Temperature for Power Generation 168 10.1.3.10 Type of Cooling System 169 10.1.3.11 Size of Solar Power Plants 169 10.1.3.12 Robustness of Other Technologies 169 10.1.4 Summary for Comparison of Technologies 170 10.2 Advanced Solar Boiler Concept for CSP Plants 171 XI 43.2 Electric Drives Figure 43.6 Energy-saving potentials of e-drive system optimization measures in the European industry sector by 2050, compared with the overall industrial final energy demand Source: historical data, [7]; final energy demand projections, [11]; energy-saving potentials, [5] Figure 43.7 Cost curve for energy savings through e-drive system optimization Source: Fraunhofer ISI 921 922 43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example Furthermore, the utilization of direct drives instead of belts and the optimization of ducting are exclusively illustrated in the chart as cost-effective measures, but with only a minor impact regarding their energy-saving potential Finally, all the other energy-saving options that are not discussed in detail here also play a substantial role These options are collectively referred to as “Other options” in Figure 43.7 with specific costs of –1113 M€’05 Mtoe–1 and energy savings of 4.9 Mtoe in 2020 Just the regular maintenance is not cost-effective, which results from high labor costs for maintenance specialists These costs not compensate for the monetary energy savings Comparing the costs and energy-saving potentials in subsequent years with 2020, nothing surprising can be witnessed The energy-savings potential increases for every measure, the negative specific costs increase steadily, and the positive specific costs of the regular maintenance decrease, owing to increasing electricity prices Overall, the energy-saving potential of e-drive system optimization is quantified as 40 Mtoe in 2050 The net benefits resulting from e-drive system optimization total nearly €14 billion by 2020 (whereof less than 1% is needed to compensate for the additional costs through regular maintenance) and €45 billion by 2050 43.2 Steam and Hot Water Generation Steam and hot water are used in industry for a wide variety of different purposes Whereas temperatures below 100 °C tend to be used for water and space heating in the food, textile, and tobacco industries, temperatures between 100 and 500 °C are needed for many different industrial processes such as paper and poly(vinyl chloride) production (Figure 43.8) Heating at temperatures up to 1000 °C and above is very specialized and process specific, for example, in iron and steel and in glass and ceramics production [5] Based on the predicted trend of the baseline scenario, the energy consumption of steam and hot water appliances is likely to remain more or less stable in the future As modern appliances for steam and hot water generation already have efficiency levels of 90–95%, this technology can be described as highly developed [15] Different types of boilers and burners are applied to generate steam and hot water for industrial use Commonly used boilers work in the power range 100 kW–50 MW and are typically fired by oil, lignite, hard coal, electricity, natural gas (mixed with biogas), or biomass The choice of boiler generally depends on the process requirements [3, 5, 14, 15] When high operating temperatures in the range 200–300 °C and high pressures such as 80 bar are needed, for example, in drying processes in the chemical industry, thermal oil heaters are applied (85–89% efficiency) In contrast to water-based heat generators, thermal oil heaters use oil as the energy carrier In addition to technical improvements to the mentioned boilers, alternative generation concepts and greater integration of renewable energies offer substantial saving potentials [3, 5, 14, 15]: 43.2 Steam and Hot Water Generation Figure 43.8 Share of total heat demand in the European industry sector Source: [15] Combined heat and power (CHP) generation systems can be used instead of steam boilers to provide steam for processes up to 500 °C In CHP systems, a variety of technologies are applied such as steam back-pressure turbines, condensing turbines, gas turbines, and combined-cycle gas turbines Their efficiency increases in that order by ~20% to an overall efficiency of > 40% To increase the heat produced by CHP technologies above 500 °C, one option might be to apply solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) Their higher operating temperatures of up to 900 °C make SOFCs suitable candidates for application with CHP Economizers operate in a similar way to heat exchangers, extracting residual heat from flue gases to subsequently preheat the feed water In addition to integrated solutions, economizers can also be used to retrofit existing generation appliances To apply condensing heating technology, a heat exchanger is installed downstream of the economizer, which cools the flue gases below their condensation temperature During this process, condensing heat is released, which is directly supplied to the closed heating circuit Depending on the age and fuel type of the burner, the operating excess air lies within the range 5–20% Calorific energy is purged in this process By implementing oxygen-regulation equipment, the air supply can be optimized and the energy demand minimized Using a continuously variable burner enables boilers to be run in a partial-load operating range, which can prevent frequent start-and-stop operation This can reduce idling losses because the furnace no longer needs to be purged before being triggered The technical energy-saving potential of steam and hot water generation has been calculated using a scenario approach Details of the methodology were presented by Fraunhofer ISI [5]; this section provides just an overview of the most important elements 923 924 43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example The calculation of technical energy-saving potential considers eight technology groups for the generation of heat in industry, of which only boilers represent the separate heat production (SHP), all other technologies being applied for CHP generation: steam back-pressure turbine, steam condensing turbine, gas turbine, combined-cycle, fuel cells, internal combustion engine, boilers, and other technologies The main input variable for the calculations is the heat demand of industry It is derived in the first part of the model, taking into account the development of production and value added, together with certain sector-specific energy-saving options and assuming an average combustion efficiency of 85% In the next step, the total heat demand is allocated to different temperature levels, as the possibilities and the technologies for supplying heat depend strongly on the temperature needed Two general groups of energy-saving options in heat generation are implemented: improved diffusion of CHP replacing separate generation of heat and electricity, and improved efficiencies in both separate and combined heat generation We applied a methodology in accordance with Eurostat [16] that calculates the energy savings by comparing the CHP system with an alternative system that might have been in place if the CHP unit had not been built The energy-saving potential is defined as the difference between the primary energy demands of both systems Consequently, the choice and definition of the alternative system – the system that was replaced by the CHP plant – have a considerable influence on the results The technical energy-saving potential is characterized by a high diffusion rate of CHP (maximum 90% of a sector's heat consumption below 500 °C to be generated in CHP plants) and a fast EU-wide convergence of plants’ mean efficiency values The energy-saving potential in industrial heat generation of 13% compared with the baseline, as illustrated in Figure 43.9, is due primarily to the diffusion of efficient space heating technologies, to a further diffusion of CHP technology replacing units of separate heat and electricity generation, and to efficiency improvements of separate and combined heat generation technologies Approximately 20 Mtoe of all energy savings result from space heating, and a further Mtoe result from CHP diffusion and 10 Mtoe from efficiency improvements in boiler and CHP technology The total technical energy-saving potential will amount to 44 Mtoe by 2030 and to 95 Mtoe by 2050 compared with the baseline Not considered are the energy savings from the application of solar thermal energy, as this has hardly been used in industry so far Furthermore, in the case of CHP it needs to be emphasized that the energy-saving potential technically cannot be considered as final energy because savings only arise if the comparison with a reference with separate generation of heat and electricity occurs at the level of primary energy As mentioned before, energy-saving options in industrial steam and hot water generation can be divided into three groups: efficient industrial space heating, further diffusion of CHP, and efficiency improvement of separate heat and power (SHP) and CHP generation For space heating, it is fairly easy to determine the economic potential, assuming that similar investments need to be made to those in the tertiary sector for large buildings Thus the energy-saving potential is divided into a “low-hanging fruit” part (see the LHF share in Figure 43.10),which represents roughly one-third, and 43.2 Steam and Hot Water Generation Figure 43.9 Energy-saving potential by efficient steam and hot water generation in the European industry sector until 2050 compared with the overall industrial final energy demand Source: historical data, [7]; final energy demand projections, [11]; energy-saving potential, [5] a “technical” part (representing measures not being economic) for the rest While the low-hanging fruit potential further increases to 2050 from to 14 Mtoe, the cost reduction involved increases from €0.4 to €10 billion The noneconomic potential only becomes cost-efficient by 2050, if financial incentives are undertaken beforehand in order to compensate for the additional investment of the efficiency technology compared with the reference technology Regarding CHP, one can assume that the investment for a CHP plant is even lower than that for the construction of two separate plants that generate the same amount of heat and electricity individually Consequently, the investment add-on for a CHP plant is equal to or even lower than zero Hence the decisive factors for the cost-effectiveness of a new CHP plant comprise the fuel mix of the generation capacity that is displaced by the CHP plant, the price spread between the fuels used and the electricity produced, and the efficiency of the CHP and the competing SHP Since this is a large set of regulating tools that can be adjusted, a parameter variation was carried out in order to depict the entire range of CHP cost-effectiveness 925 926 43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example Figure 43.10 Cost curve for efficiency improvements in industrial steam and hot water generation Source: Fraunhofer ISI For this present economic potential assessment, the most probable case was chosen: new SHP plants consisting of 50% hard coal-fueled (from 2030 onwards equipped with CCS technology) and 50% natural gas-fueled plants will be displaced by CHP plants with a mix of 80% biomass and 20% natural gas For both SHP and CHP, an efficiency improvement is assumed Figure 43.10 shows the cost curve of the analysis and the specific cost reductions through space heating Whereas energy-saving options for space heating experience a further decrease in specific costs, for CHP the opposite trend can be observed This effect is driven through a decreasing fuel price spread between the fuels used in SHP and CHP and the electricity produced Hence the cost advantage of the CHP plant is continuously compensated by relatively slower increasing fuel prices for SHP plants 43.3 Other Industry Sectors Apart from the energy-saving potentials identified in the different cross-cutting technologies, additional potentials are included in the process technologies of the iron and steel, nonferrous metals, chemicals, and nonmetallic minerals industries They are briefly explained in that order in this section 43.3 Other Industry Sectors Figure 43.11 Final energy demand (FED) in the industry sector in the EU (historical and forecast) Source: 1990–2008, [7]; 2009, average value; 2010–2030, [11] Figure 43.12 Share of cross-cutting technologies in 2008 by sector Source: [5] Figure 43.11 gives an overview of the individual shares of final energy demand in the different industrial sub-sectors The iron and steel industry and the chemical industry are the main energy-consuming sub-sectors in European industry In order to gain an impression of the significance of the process technologies and their energy-saving potentials in the various sectors, Figure 43.12 depicts the share of cross-cutting and process technologies within the sectors Electricity demand in the nonmetallic minerals industry (such as glass, ceramics, and cement) results mainly from cross-cutting technologies The associated energy-saving potentials were already covered there whereas the metallic minerals industry is strongly dominated by process-specific technologies 927 928 43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example The iron and steel industry is the most energy-consuming industry in Europe, accounting for ~20% of the total industrial final energy demand and more than 5% of the total European energy consumption [7] In this industry branch, two types of production processes need to be distinguished The blast furnace route manufactures pig iron and crude steel based on the raw materials iron ore, coke, and coal It is very energy consuming, requiring 0.29–0.36 toe t–1 pig iron and 0.43–0.48 toe t–1 crude steel [17] Currently, about 70% of world steel is produced via the blast furnace/basic oxygen furnace route [18] Hence blast furnaces account for a large part of energy consumption, and a particular focus is set on increasing energy efficiency Energy saving options comprise the adoption of top pressure recovery turbines and blast furnace gas recovery Pulverized coal injection helps reducing coke demand while combined-cycle gas turbines can be used instead of steam turbines to increase the thermal efficiency of power generation from blast furnace gas [2] Alternatively, the electric arc furnace (EAC) uses recycled scrap, thereby avoiding the energy-intensive process of ore reduction and thus requiring only 0.07–0.12 toe t–1 crude steel Hence major energy savings can be triggered through the increased proportion of scrap metal being recycled At the same time one should note that a higher share of EAFs results in lower fuel consumption but higher overall electricity consumption Direct current arc furnaces can significantly reduce the energy intensity if the furnace features a certain minimum production size Gas-based direct reduced iron (DRI) is another option for less energy-intensive iron and steel making [2] The strip casting process promises the most significant energy savings Instead of reheating the steel for final shaping, a continuous near net shape casting is attached to the steel production process, reducing the specific energy demand by 75% to 0.002 toe t–1 steel Further improvements can be achieved from heat recovery from steel rolling [23] Among nonferrous metals, aluminum production is responsible for more than 50% of the total energy demand Primary aluminum production involves bauxite (a type of aluminum ore) mining, production of alumina (aluminum oxide) from the bauxite, extraction of the aluminum through electrolysis, and final rolling The production of primary aluminum requires about 1.3 toe t–1 of aluminum whereas the use of recycled aluminum reduces the energy demand to ~5% [20] Energy savings can be triggered through the implementation of so-called PFPB (point feeder pre-baked) electrodes and improved operation of the furnaces and of the entire process [23] In the long run, the integration of superconducting inductive magnet heating promises savings of up to 50% compared with conventional fuel-driven heating and melting processes [21] The chemical industry is the second largest energy consumer of the European manufacturing industry, accounting for 57 Mtoe final energy demand in 2007 According to the baseline forecast, the chemical industry is supposed to experience a further increase within the next 20 years, thus even exceeding the iron and steel industry [11] 43.3 Other Industry Sectors The chemical industry is characterized by significant heterogeneity, featuring numerous types of processes applied Consequently, the identification of energy-saving technologies comprises a whole range of process-related measures However, they can be traced back to a few fundamental principles, such as the application of more efficient catalysts, increased heat integration, the implementation of more energy-efficient separation units, the use of more efficient heat pumps and compressors and the adoption of advanced process automation [23] The bulk of the energy savings in the chemical industry can be found in the sectors of refineries mainly linked to partition wall columns [5] In this study the production of nonmetallic minerals comprises glass and cement products, accounting for nearly 14% of the industrial energy consumption Cement production is one of the major energy-consuming industry branches in the EU A mixture of limestone, clay, and sand is pretreated (refining and mixing) for further processing in the furnace where the bulk of the energy is needed The temperature increase implies chemical reactions that transform the raw material into pellets, called clinker By adding gypsum, cement is attained The global average energy intensity ranges between 0.07 and 0.11 toe t–1 cement [20] Owing to the high energy intensity of cement production, various energy efficiency savings have already been exploited in the past (such as waste heat recovery) A main factor for the energy intensity of cement production is the type of kiln technology employed for clinker production Currently shaft kilns or wet/semi-dry/ dry kilns are commonly used in the EU Replacing them by dry kilns with pre-heaters and a precalciner triggers significant savings in clinker production Additional savings result from heat recovery and efficiency improvements in the raw material production and grinding through high-efficiency classifiers and by the use of vertical roller mills [22] The substitution of clinker through alternatives, such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, limestone, and pozzolana yields further savings [2] There are different types of glass products, but the individual processes all include the following steps: selection of raw material (silica sand, soda ash, limestone), batch preparation (weighing and mixing of the raw materials), melting (the most energy-consuming process step) and refining, conditioning, forming, and post-processing [20] Increased efficiency is focused mainly on the actual melting process by using oxygen as a substitute for the combustion air in the furnace and waste heat recovery from the exhaust gas, used to preheat to the combustion air Paper is made from pulp, which can be produced using wood or recycled paper Pulp production can be differentiated into three alternative processes using different kinds of raw materials and producing different qualities of pulp In the production of mechanical pulp, wood is shredded and refined to obtain a fibrous pulp Huge amounts of waste heat are a typical by-product Chemical pulp is also based on wood as the raw material and is produced using chemicals (sulfite or sulfate) that are used to separate the lignin content from the wood fibers in a cooking process The lignin (around 50% of the initial wood) is then burnt in order to generate the large amounts of steam needed for this process The third process is the production of pulp from waste paper 929 930 43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example Energy efficiency improvements for mechanical pulp concentrate on shredding and refining the wood and the recovery of waste heat In the long run, large energy savings could be made by switching to water-free paper production where resin or artificial adhesive agents provide the adhesion between fibers Long-term efficiency improvements for chemical pulp concentrate on the more efficient (energetic) use of by-products such as black liquor and the general development towards a biorefinery The gasification of black liquor is discussed as a possible key element of such a biorefinery that would lead to significant efficiency improvements compared with the direct combustion of black liquor However, the greater use of recovered paper has the most significant potential in several European countries For paper production, efforts are concentrated on the efficiency of paper drying – the process step that consumes the largest share of steam in the paper machine Improved mechanical dewatering reduces the need for thermal drying Although these techniques are already widespread, there is still potential for further diffusion The shoe press technology keeps the paper inside the press for a longer period, extracting water from the paper using mechanical pressure and therefore reducing the need for thermal drying by 10–15% Thermo-compressors increase the pressure of low-pressure waste heat, converting it into useful heat for other processes Figure 43.13 Energy savings through process technologies in the European industry sector up to 2050 Source: Fraunhofer ISI 43.4 Overall Industry Sector Better use of waste heat and heat integration means that significant steam savings of up to 20% can be realized in paper factories Other industry branches, such as the machinery construction, textile, food and drink, and tobacco industries feature additional energy-saving potentials that were not analyzed in detail owing to their relatively low significance However, a rough estimate of the energy-saving potential is 12 Mtoe by 2030 The total energy-saving potential for all industrial process technologies amounts to 18 Mtoe by 2030 and to 40 Mtoe by 2050 (Figure 43.13) This is comparable to a 5%/11% reduction relative to the baseline 43.4 Overall Industry Sector The total energy savings of the industry sector in Europe will be 88 Mtoe by 2030 (Figure 43.14) The entire energy savings are 26% compared with the baseline Figure 43.14 Total final energy-saving potential in the EU by 2050 in the industry sector Source: Fraunhofer ISI 931 932 43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example Most of the short-term energy savings can be exploited by improved holistic optimization of electric motor-driven systems and energy-efficient heat generation In the long run, further energy savings can compensate for the increasing baseline energy demand and promise even higher demand reductions Provided that there is full implementation of the energy-saving potential by 2050, final energy demand would reach the 178 Mtoe level, representing a 52% reduction compared with the baseline The close relationship between materials use and energy use has not attracted much attention in the past Looking at energy-intensive material production, however, amounting to about one-third of total industrial energy demand, it becomes obvious that the intelligent use of materials can contribute substantially to reducing per capita energy consumption The major strategic options in this field are the following: x Recycling and re-use of energy-intensive waste materials or used products (e.g., steel, aluminum, paper, plastics, and glass, and re-use of bottles and vehicle engines and tires) x Substitution of highly energy-intensive materials by less energy-intensive materials or even by other technologies (e.g., steel and cement/concrete by wood, newspapers by electronic news) x More efficient use of materials by better design and construction, improved properties of materials, oils, and solvents, and even foamed plastics and metals This strategy is particularly important in the case of moving parts and vehicles, as lighter constructions may contribute to radically lower energy demand over the lifetime of the particular application (e.g., cars) All three elements contribute to structural changes within industrial production, mostly in the direction of lower energy intensity of total industrial production Figure 43.15 shows the energy curve and Figure 43.16 shows the primary energy demand in the European industry sector If no measures are undertaken, the baseline represents a further increase in energy demand to 592 Mtoe by 2050 Primary energy savings in the industry sector are in two parts By 2050, 29% of the overall baseline demand can be reduced through efficiency improvements in the power sector4) Even though efficient steam and hot water generation technologies (i.e., efficiency improvement of heat generation units, further CHP diffusion, and highly efficient industrial space heating) represent the bulk of the technical final energy-saving potential, their contribution to the economic savings is smaller and depends strongly on the assumptions made regarding the fuel mix of the generation capacities displaced by CHP 4) In order to quantify the influence of the electricity generation mix on the primary energy savings, in the reference case, the electricity mix from the PRIMES projection of the European Commission from 2010 was used Alternatively, a second, distinctively more ambitious electricity mix from the BMU project “EU Long-Term Scenarios 2050” was assumed, which is based to a large extent on the use of renewable energy sources (in 2050 the share of renewable energy sources for electricity generation is 92% and the median efficiency is 80%) 43.4 Overall Industry Sector Figure 43.15 Cost curve for the industrial sector in the 27 Source: Fraunhofer ISI Figure 43.16 Primary energy savings in the European industry sector up to 2050 compared with the baseline energy demand Source: Fraunhofer ISI 933 934 43 Energy Savings Potentials and Technologies in the Industrial Sector: Europe as an Example In contrast, electric drive-based system optimization measures trigger an immediate cost reduction (apart from regular maintenance that causes additional labor costs), given the significant specific cost savings of more than 1000 M€’05 Mtoe–1 and the high energy-saving potential, as indicated in Figure 43.15 They account for roughly twice as much cost savings as benefits deriving from process technologies (nearly €14 billion versus €7 billion) Adding up all costs and benefits leads to a net cost reduction of €25 billion by 2020 and more than €100 billion by 2050 Excluding the cost benefits from CHP, which are highly sensitive regarding the price and fuel mix assumptions, reduces the net benefits to €21 and €90 billion, respectively Final energy-related efficiency technologies are able to deliver an additional 36% reduction compared with the baseline, which corresponds to 215 Mtoe Although in the short term more than one-third of the savings are delivered through e-drive system optimization measures, this share declines subsequently This is because the increasing power generation efficiency partly compensates for the significance of electricity-saving measures Hence efficiency technologies for steam and hot water generation increase in importance, representing nearly half of the primary energy saving potential by 2050 Figure 43.17 depicts the reduction of GHG emissions through efficiency improvements in the power sector (cf., the “conversion savings” slice) and final energy-related efficiency technologies compared with the calculated emissions from the baseline energy demand Figure 43.17 GHG emission reduction in the European industry sector up to 2050 compared with the calculated emissions from the baseline energy demand Source: Fraunhofer ISI References It is obvious that even in the baseline scenario GHG emission reductions will occur to a level of 767 Mt CO2-eq by 2050 Efficiency improvements in power generation support a decline in GHG emissions by 20% to a level of 610 Mt CO2-eq The actual industry-related efficiency technologies drive a further decrease in GHG emissions by an additional 49% compared with the overall baseline, limiting the emissions to 233 Mt CO2-eq An increasing share of the emission reduction potential is based on efficiency technologies in steam and hot water generation and also other process-specific efficiency technologies that trigger savings of energy carriers other than electricity This is due to the fact that electricity savings feature a decreasing emission reduction effect because of efficiency improvements and decarbonization in the power sector References Bossmann, T., Eichhammer, W., and Elsland, R (2012) Contribution of Energy Efficiency Measures to Climate Protection Within the European Union until 2050 Policy Report and Accompanying Scientific Report, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe, http://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/ isi-en/e/projekte/bmu_eu-energyroadmap_315192_ei.php (last accessed 24 January 2013) IEA (2012) World Energy Outlook 2012, International Energy Agency, Paris Fraunhofer ISI (2009) ADAM Report, M1, D3: ADAM 2-Degree Scenario for Europe – Policies and Impacts, Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe Wietschel, M et al (2010) 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