Changing energy the transition to a sustainable future

Changing Energy The Transition to a Sustainable Future John H Perkins university of california press Changing Energy Changing Energy The Transition to a Sustainable Future John H Perkins university of california press University of California Press, one of the most distinguished university presses in the United States, enriches lives around the world by advancing scholarship in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences Its activities are supported by the UC Press Foundation and by philanthropic contributions from individuals and institutions For more information, visit www.ucpress.edu University of California Press Oakland, California © 2017 by John H Perkins Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Perkins, John H., author Title: Changing energy : the transition to a sustainable future / John H Perkins Description: Oakland, California : University of California Press, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: lccn 2017001098 (print) | lccn 2017004076 (ebook) | isbn 9780520287785 (cloth : alk paper) | isbn 9780520287792 (pbk : alk paper) | isbn 9780520962842 (ebook) Subjects: lcsh: Energy consumption | Renewable energy sources | Fossil fuels | Power resources | Sustainable development Classification: lcc hd9502.a2 p465 2017 (print) | lcc hd9502.a2 (ebook) | ddc 333.79/4—dc23 lc record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017001098 Manufactured in the United States of America 26 10 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 For Milo and Linus And their cousins and peers Their generation and those that follow stand at risk from unchanged energy Contents Preface Prologue 10 11 The Invisible Keystone of the Modern World Energy and Energy Services Energy and the Modern State Primary Fuels and Energy Efficiency Energy Systems Climate Change Geopolitical Tensions, Health and Environmental Effects, and Depletion The Fourth Energy Transition: Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Energy Sources: Criteria for Acceptability Strengths and Weaknesses of Primary Energy Sources Barriers and Challenges Epilogue Appendix Units for Measuring Energy and Power Appendix Production of Heat by Combustion and Fission Notes Glossary Index ix xvii 25 51 77 101 115 137 167 203 219 271 287 291 297 301 333 337 Preface Authors generally explain something about the origins of a book in the preface, but does it matter why someone decided to sit down long enough to grind out a narrative text? I think it does, in at least one sense: authors must have a passion that leads them to write, and readers benefit from knowing what that passion might be In my case, the decision to delve deeply into energy and write a book about it solidified with the births of two grandchildren in the first decade of the twenty-first century As I looked at these marvelous, wiggling babies, I realized they had entered a world that was rapidly changing into something very different from the world that I have spent my life in I mused about the fact that my father and mother, both born about one hundred years earlier than my grandchildren, had entered a world in which automobiles and electricity were just beginning to appear, at least in the United States and Europe For them, after the Great Depression and World War II, life was filled with incredible new machines and rapidly growing uses of energy, but they and their parents and grandparents also remembered the days of horses, wagons, and kerosene lamps By the time my sister and I, plus our cousins, arrived from the late 1930s to the 1950s, our family was firmly entrenched in the luxuries of the automobile, electric lights, radios, refrigerators, telephones, and gasheated homes Horses were strictly for recreational riding, and kerosene lamps provided a quaintly old-fashioned and rather dim light Obsolete! And a fire hazard to boot Moreover, we were never concerned about ix 330 | Notes to Pages 275–279 Renewable Fuels Association, “RFA: EPA’s Final RFS Rule Puts Future of Biofuels & Climate Policy in Hands of Oil Industry,” November 30, 2015, www.ethanolrfa.org/2015/11/rfa-epas-final-rfs-rule-puts-future-of-biofuelsclimate-policy-in-hands-of-oil-industry/, January 9, 2016 American Petroleum Institute, Energy and Climate Change (Washington, DC: American Petroleum Institute, 2015) Citi GPS, Energy Darwinism II, 82 Association of American Railroads, “Railroads and Coal,” July 2015, www aar.org/BackgroundPapers/Railroads%20and%20Coal.pdf, January 9, 2016 John Barrasso, https://twitter.com/SenJohnBarrasso, January 16, 2016 10 Tim Knauss, “Closing FitzPatrick Nuke Plant Could Cost CNY Estimated $500 Million a Year,” syracuse.com, October 12, 2015, www.syracuse com/news/index.ssf/2015/10/closing_fitzpatrick_nuke_plant_could_cost_cny_ economy_500m_a_year.html, January 9, 2016 11 Robert Bryce, “Nuclear Hypocrisy: Cuomo, Schumer’s Odd Outrage over a Closing Plant,” New York Post, November 16, 2015, http://nypost com/2015/11/16/nuclear-hypocrisy-cuomo-schumers-odd-outrage-over-aclosing-plant/, January 9, 2016 12 Rob Port, “With State Hit Hard by Low Oil Prices, North Dakota Universities Brace for Budget Cuts,” Watchdog, November 30, 2015, http:// watchdog.org/249275/state-hit-hard-low-oil-prices-north-dakota-universitiesbrace-budget-cuts/, January 9, 2016 13 James Marson and Andrey Ostroukh, “Vladimir Putin Says Russia’s Economic Crisis Has Peaked,” Wall Street Journal, December 17, 2015, www wsj.com/articles/vladimir-putin-warns-government-may-adjust-budget-overoil-price-fall-1450346139, January 9, 2016 14 Alex Epstein, The Moral Case for Fossil Fuels (New York: Portfolio, 2014) 15 Daniel Yergin, The Prize (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991) 16 U.S Environmental Protection Agency, “Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data,” www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/global.html, January 11, 2016; U.S Environmental Protection Agency, “Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/transportation html, January 11, 2016 17 Union of Concerned Scientists, Truck Electrification: Cutting Oil Consumption & Reducing Pollution (Cambridge: Union of Concerned Scientists, 2012) 18 Clean Technia, “World’s First All-Electric Battery-Powered Ferry,” June 13, 2015, http://cleantechnica.com/2015/06/13/worlds-first-electric-batterypowered-ferry/, January 11, 2016 19 Maggie Donaldson, “Two Battery-Powered Planes Have Crossed the English Channel,” Business Insider, July 12, 2015, www.businessinsider.com /a-battery-powered-airplane-has-crossed-the-english-channel-2015–7, January 11, 2016 20 Felix Creutzig, Patrick Jochem, and Orreanne Y Edelenbosch et al., “Transport: A Roadblock to Climate Change Mitigation?,” Science 350 (November 20, 2015): 911–12 Notes to Pages 280–295 | 331 21 U.S National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Renewable Electricity Futures Study, vols (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2012) 22 Malcolm Keay, Electricity Markets Are Broken—Can They Be Fixed? (Oxford: Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, 2016) 23 Michael E.Webber and Sheril R Kirshenbaum, “It’s Time to Shine the Spotlight on Energy Education,” Chronicle of Higher Education, January 22, 2012, http://chronicle.com/article/Its-Time-to-Shine-the/130408/, December 16, 2016 24 John H Perkins, Catherine Middlecamp, and David Blockstein et al., “Energy Education and the Dilemma of Mitigating Climate Change,” Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences (2014): 354–59 25 Mark Z Jacobson, Mark A Delucchi, and Guillaume Bazouin et al., “100% Clean and Renewable Wind, Water, and Sunlight (WWS) All-Sector Energy Roadmaps for the 50 United States,” Energy and Environmental Science (2015), doi:10.1039/c5ee01283j; Mark A Delucchi and Mark Z Jacobson, “Providing All Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part II: Reliability, System and Transmission Costs, Aad Policies,” Energy Policy 39 (2011): 1170–90 26 Andrew Revkin, “Jim Hansen Presses the Climate Case for Nuclear Energy,” July 23, 2013, http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/23/jimhansen-presses-the-climate-case-for-nuclear-energy/?_r=2, January 15, 2016 27 National Energy Policy Development Group, Reliable, Affordable, and Environmentally Sound Energy for America’s Future (Washington, DC: White House, 2001) 28 These concluding paragraphs are derived from John H Perkins, Paul C Stern, Richard E Sparks, and Robert A Knox, Do you really want to something about climate change?, manuscript in preparation appendix 1 Philip Lervig, “Sadi Carnot and the Steam Engine: Nicolas Clément’s Lectures on Industrial Chemistry, 1823–1828,” British Journal for the History of Science 18, no (1985): 147–96 James L Hargrove, “Does the history of food energy units suggest a solution to ‘Calorie confusion’?,” Nutrition Journal 6, no 44 (2007), doi:10.1186/1475–2891–6-44 Oxford English Dictionary, definition of British thermal unit John Bourne, Handbook of the Steam Engine, 3rd ed (Philadelphia: J B Lippincott and Co., 1870), 234 Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, The International System of Units (SI), 8th ed (Paris: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006) U.S Energy Information Administration, “How Much Electricity Does an American Home Use?,” www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=97&t=3, July 7, 2016 U.S Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Monthly for April, 2016 (Washington, DC: U.S Energy Information Administration, June 2016), table 1.1 332 | Notes to Pages 296–299 U.S Energy Information Administration, “How Much Oil Is Consumed in the United States?,” www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=33&t=6, July 7, 2016 Iowa State University, Cooperative Extension, Liquid Fuel Measurements and Conversions (Ames: Iowa State University, 2008) appendix European Nuclear Society, Fuel comparison, www.euronuclear.org/info /encyclopedia/f/fuelcomparison.htm, June 25, 2016 Glossary atmospheric engine: Term used to describe the engine developed by Thomas Newcomen in the early 1700s; sudden condensation of steam in a cylinder produced a partial vacuum, and the weight of the atmosphere above a piston forced the piston to move in the cylinder big-four fuels: Term used in this book to designate coal, oil, gas, and uranium, all of which are mineral fuels rather than organic fuels; the big-four fuels currently provide almost all energy services and are currently essential for human comfort, safety, and survival biomass: Products derived from plants and animals that can be used as a primary energy source chemical bond: The sharing of electrons by two atomic nuclei; during combustion, chemical bonds break and reform to make new substances and release heat and electromagnetic energy climate: Patterns of temperature, wind, and precipitation over a long period of time; see also weather climate change: Alteration of the patterns of temperatures, wind, and precipitation over time combustion: A chemical reaction in which reacting molecules rearrange atoms by breaking and re-forming chemical bonds to (a) produce new substances and (b) release energy in the form of heat and electromagnetic radiation credit money: Pieces of paper issued by a bank that promise to pay the holder of the paper a certain sum at a future date These “bank notes” used by the holder as currency at first supplemented and then replaced coins of precious metals as money to enable commerce The first forms of credit money appeared long before the Bank of England, but this bank significantly increased the use of credit money, which is now a hallmark of modern states based on high uses of energy 333 334 | Glossary electricity: The presence of electric attractions and repulsions; generally pictured as the transmission of electric force in a circuit, during which the force produces energy services, e.g., motion, heat, or light electron: A particle outside the nucleus of an atom that has a negative electric charge; electrons shared by two nuclei constitute a chemical bond between the nuclei electromagnetic radiation: Detected in some experiments as waves and in other experiments as particles; exercises both electrical and magnetic attractions and repulsions energy: (a) the ability to work, or accelerating a mass through a distance, i.e., making a physical object move faster; (b) heat, measured by temperature, which reflects the movement of atoms and molecules in material substances; (c) electromagnetic radiation, such as light (See appendix 1.) energy carrier See Secondary energy source energy conservation: Actions that avoid the need for energy services supplied by primary energy sources energy efficiency: Provision of the same energy service with less energy, or provision of more energy service with the same amount of energy energy, kinetic See kinetic energy energy, potential See potential energy energy services: The practical, desired results produced by energy energy transition: A change over time in the kinds and relative amounts of primary energy sources used for energy services; see First, Second, Third, and Fourth Energy Transitions energy units: Conventions enabling the measurement of energy; see appendix entropy: In any real process, such as the operation of an engine, some energy will transform into another form of energy or work, and some will transform into a form, such as heat, incapable of performing work; entropy is the form of energy that cannot perform work feed: Agricultural products, usually grains and grasses, fed to livestock first energy transition: Incorporation of fire from firewood and other biomass into daily human life for heat, light, protection from predatory animals, and cooking fiber: Agricultural and forestry products, such as cotton and timber, used for clothing, paper, and other products field: A volume of space influenced by electrical or magnetic repulsions and attractions or by gravitational attractions of a mass fission: A physical process in which the nuclei of atoms of uranium and plutonium break apart when struck by a neutron food: Agricultural products of many types used to feed people force: An attraction or repulsion that makes a mass change its velocity (speed and/or direction) fossil fuels: Primary energy sources composed of the geochemically transformed remains of biomass that grew millions of years ago fourth energy transition: A process currently under way to replace all or a great deal of coal, oil, gas, and uranium with renewable energy sources used efficiently Glossary | 335 greenhouse gases: Chemical substances that are or become part of the atmosphere and absorb infrared radiation and thus trap heat at earth’s surface heat See energy industrial revolution: Term applied to the rapid technological, economic, and social changes that began in England in the 1700s and replaced agrarian cultures; powered at first by coal, water power, and wind kinetic energy: The energy of a moving body, often expressed as KE = ẵmv2, or ẵ ì mass of the object ì velocity (speed) of object squared laws of thermodynamics: Scientific conclusions formulated in the midto late 1800s articulating the concept of energy and its behavior; the first law holds that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can transform from one form into another; the second law holds that during an energy transformation some energy can work but inevitably in any real transformation process some energy will appear as heat without doing work mineral fuel: Term coined by E A Wrigley to distinguish primary energy sources, such as coal, from energy sources dependent on daily and yearly fluxes of solar radiation, such as biomass, water power, and photovoltaic electricity neutron: A particle held within the nucleus of an atom that has no electric charge organic fuel: Term coined by E A Wrigley to distinguish primary energy sources such as solar, wind, oceanic phenomena, falling water, and biomass from the mineral fuels (coal, oil, gas, and uranium) potential energy: If physical material is known to be able to produce energy of motion (kinetic energy), heat, or electromagnetic energy (e.g., light), then the material has potential energy power: The rate in time of energy use to work (see appendix 1) primary energy source: A substance or process that supplies net energy to people in the form of light, heat, or physical movement; see also secondary energy source proton: A particle held within the nucleus of an atom that has positive electric charge second energy transition: Incorporation into human culture of agriculture to produce food and feed rather than relying on hunting and gathering; also called the Neolithic Transition; began about 40,000 years before the present and now includes almost all humans on earth secondary energy source: A material or process that provides energy services but requires a primary energy source for its formation; examples are electricity and hydrogen gas; also called an “energy carrier.” steam engine: Term applied to engines developed by James Watt and others that used expanding steam to move a piston in a cylinder; this term distinguishes these engines from Newcomen’s atmospheric engine sustainability: Defined in 1986 as “[economic] development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”; synthesized concerns about economy, environment, and equity third energy transition: A process begun in the 1500s in England in which coal began increasingly to substitute for firewood as a source of heat; 336 | Glossary petroleum, gas (first manufactured, later “natural,” frequently found with petroleum deposits), and hydroelectricity added to the energy supplies of coal; uranium joined coal, oil, and gas in the mid-1900s weather: The condition of temperature, wind, and precipitation at one time or during a very short period; see also climate work: Acceleration of a mass through a distance by a force Index A Time to Choose, 168 Agassiz, Louis, 120 agrarian economy, 3–4 Algeria, 90, 91 Alta Wind Energy Center, 244 American Petroleum Institute, 275 American Physical Society, 169 Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 138 Angola, 87 anthropogenic climate change, 117–118, 121 See also climate change Aramco, 140 ArcLight Capital Partners, 244 Arrhenius, Svante, 120–121 atmospheric engine, 12 fig., 66–67, 98 See also Newcomen, Thomas atomic bomb See nuclear weapons attractions and repulsions, 26–27, 31, 49 Australia, 80, 81, 84, 90, 94, 95, 143, 175, 264 Austria, 175 Azerbaijan, 86, 87 Bacon, Francis, 34, 52, 59 Bailey, Ronald, 69 Bank of England, 57–59, 58 fig Barrasso, John, 275 barriers to fourth energy transition, 271–286 battery, 30, 37, 40, Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond, 48, 178 Becquerel, Henri, 48, 94 Belgium, 33, 62, 97 benefits of energy See energy services, modern state, strengths and weaknesses of primary energy services, third energy transition big-four fuels, 1, 77–99 See also coal, gas, oil, uranium bin Laden, Osama, 228 bioenergy See biomass energy biofuels See biomass energy biomass energy, 193–197, 195 table, 253–262, 258–261 box black death, 54–56, 55 fig Blenkinsop, John, 19–20 Botswana, 95 Boulton, Matthew, 15, 98 Bourne, John, 292 Boyle, Robert, 34 Bradford, Peter, 233 Brazil, 85, 95, 251 Britain See United Kingdom British Empire, 17, 65–70, 71, 138–139 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 209 Brundtland report, 209 Bryson, Reid, 122 Bush, George W., 285 Calley, John, 12, caloric, 35, 37, 42, 44, 46 Canada, 73, 85, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 143, 191, 235 337 338 | Index carbon budget, 133 carbon capture and storage (CCS), 277 carbon democracy, 83 carbon dioxide, 115–118, 119–120, 122–127, 123 fig., 125 fig., 129–134 carbon tax, 288 Carnot, Lazare, 35 Carnot, Sadi, 35–38, 36 fig., 42–43, 87, 138 Carson, Rachel, x, 121 cellulosic ethanol (fuel) See biomass energy Chad, 85 charcoal, 63, 98, 195 Cheney, Dick, 285 Chernobyl, xiii, xv, 144, 236 China: coal deposits of, 80–81, 225; consumption of coal in, 224; consumption of oil in, 86; and geothermal energy, 263; and hydropower, 252; natural gas deposits in, 90, 91; and nuclear weapons, 142, 144; oil deposits in, 85; and pollution from coal, 155, 226; solar energy resources in, 180 fig.; and solar thermal energy, 175; and strategic need for oil imports, 142, 206, 227; and trade disputes, 242; transition to modern economy, 79; uranium deposits in, 95 China National Coal Corporation, 84 Chornobyl See Chernobyl Churchill, Winston, 138 Citibank, 272 Citi GPS, 272, 275 Clapeyron, Emile, 35, 42, 44 classical economy, Clausius, Rudolf, 42–45, 43 fig Clean Power Plan, 245 Clément, Nicolas, 292 climate change: and agricultural yields, 130–132; and atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, 122–124, 123 fig., 124–127, 125 fig.; and balance between heating and cooling, 124; and carbon dioxide emissions of US, 116 fig.; and climate models, 127–128, 128 fig.; distinguished from weather, 127; and feed-back loops, 124; and greenhouse gases, 124; health effects of, 131–132; and heat balance of earth, 119; and human actions, 121; and ice-core evidence, 124–127, 125 fig.; impacts of, 129–134; and infrared radiation, 119; and medieval warming, 126; and Milankovitch cycles, 125–126; and natural variation, 121; and paleoclimates, 124–127, 125 fig.; and prediction of risk, 133; and protection of common resources, 212–213; and proxy measurements, 124–127; scientific consensus for, 115–118; and sea-level rise, 130; skepticism about, 118, 133–134; speed of, 121–122; and temperature rise, 122–124, 129–134; variation of climate, 120–121 coal: assessment of strengths and weaknesses of, 224–226; and climate change, 115–134; consumption of, 81; distribution of deposits of, 80–81; environmental effects from, 146 table, 147–148 figs., 151, 154; externalities with, 145, 146 table; fatalities from mining of, 146, 148; fears of depletion of, 138; health effects from, 146 table, 149–151, 154–155; history of, 79; increased use of in England, 56, 62–63, 66–67; industry, 81–84; mining machines used, 148 fig., 153 fig.; mountain-top removal, 145, 147–148 figs.; physical distribution of, 80; physical nature of, 80; pneumoconiosis from, 149; and Powder River Basin, 151; and rail transport, 151, 152 fig.; reserves, 81 table: sulfur dioxide (SO2) from, 151, 153, 154; surface mining, 145; transition to from firewood, 9–11; underground mining, 146, 148 coke, 63, 98, 224 Cold War, 140, 142 combustion, 79, 297–298 concentrating solar power, 176, 177 fig Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, 102 Continental Oil Company (Germany), 139 Coolidge, Calvin, 73 corn ethanol plant, 195 fig cotton, 64–70 credit money, 56–59 criteria for energy investment: aesthetics, 214–215; and democracy, 211–212; distribution of benefits, costs, and risks, 213; ethics, 213–214; for fourth energy transition, 203–215; geographic distributions, 208–209; profits and risk, 204–206; protection of common resources, 212–213; security of access and profits, 206; size of resource, 206–207; and sustainability, 209–215; for third energy transition, 203–209; time of use, 207–208 Crosby, Alfred, Cuomo, Andrew, 276 Index Darby, Abraham, 63 Davy, Humphrey, 30 DDT, 121 Deline First Nation (Canada), 235 Delucchi, Mark, 283 Denmark, 30, 187, 244, 280 depletion of primary energy sources: and business decision-making, 157–158; definition of, 156; and energy return on investment, 160–165; interaction of technology-geology-economics, 156; and peaking, 158–160 Drake, Edwin, 92 Ecofys, 171–175, 174 table Ecuador, 87 Edison, Thomas Alva, 71–72 Efficient Use of Energy, 169 Egypt, 168 Einstein, Albert, 48 Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT), 187 electric telegraphy, 33–34, 71 electricity, 28–34, 48, 71–75, 183, 196, 198–199, 278–281 electromagnetism, 33–34, 49 energy: assessment of strengths and weaknesses of, 203–217; commerce in, 47; concept of, 25–28; conservation of, 107; density of, 7; efficiency of use, 64, 97–99, 107, 168–171, 170 fig., 237–238; and electricity, 28–34; and energy return on investment, 160–165, 164 fig.; and energy services, 25; and heat, 34–46, 71–72; history of, 25–49; and investment, 108–110; and modern state, 4–23, 51–75; per capita use of, 78 fig.; and political ecology, 109–110, 111 fig.; qualitative assessment of, 203–209; quantitative assessment of, 215–217; renewable, 171–200; and steam engine, 34–38; and synthesis of science, 46–49; transformation of, 44; transport of, 92; units of, 47, 291–296 See also biomass energy, coal, firewood, food, geothermal energy, heat, hydropower, natural gas, oil, solar energy, uranium, wind energy energy budget See energy profile energy economy See energy profile energy education, 281–283 energy efficiency See energy energy expertise, 281–283 energy flow chart See Sankey diagram of energy flow | 339 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA), 258–259 energy payback time, 222 table energy policy, 284–286, 287–289 Energy Policy Act of 2005, 285 energy profile: changes in US, 102 fig.; consumption patterns in, 106; development of methods for, 101–108; dynamism in, 107–108; graphic representation of, 104 fig energy return on investment (EROI), 160–165, 164 fig., 216–217, 222 table energy services, 25, 49, 56, 62–71, 97–99 energy system See energy profile energy transition See first, fourth, second, and third energy transitions energy units, 291–296 England See United Kingdom enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), 198 Entergy Corporation, 276 entropy, 45–46 environmental effects, 146 table, 147–148 figs., 151, 153–154 EROI See energy return on investment ethanol (fuel) See biomass energy Evans, Oliver, 18 externalities, economic, 145, 146 table Faraday, Michael, 30–34, 31 fig., 48 feed-in tariffs, 240 firewood, 1–3, 97–98 See also first energy transition first energy transition, 1–3, 97 fission, 7, 48, 79, 94, 142–143, 298–299 food, See also second energy transition, force, 26–27, 46–47, 49 See also attractions and repulsions Ford Foundation, 168 Fourier, Joseph, 119 fourth energy transition: investment criteria for, 209–215; and Lovins, Amory B., 170–171; origin of, 167–171; political barriers to, 271–278 See also biomass energy, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar energy, wind energy fracking See hydraulic fracturing France, 18, 32, 33, 37–38, 47, 48, 62, 91, 94, 97, 119, 131, 139, 142, 191, 227, 264, 277 Franklin, Benjamin, 28–29 French Revolution, 37–38 Fukushima, 144, 233, 235, 236 Fulton, Robert, 19 340 | Index Gabon, 87 Galvani, Luigi, 29 Gamesa (Spain), 244 gas See manufactured gas, natural gas Gazprom, 141 Gender Inequality Index, 162 geopolitical tensions: oil, 138–142; uranium, 142–144 geothermal energy, 197–200, 199 fig., 262–267 Germany, 38, 42, 47, 62, 81, 83, 91, 96, 139, 180 fig., 181, 183, 187, 227, 241, 244, 264, 280 GE Wind, 244 Geysers, The (geothermal power plant), 199 fig Gilbert, William, 28–29, 48 Global Infrastructure Partners, 244 glorious revolution, 57 Great Britain See United Kingdom Greece, 175 ground source heat pump, 200 Hall, Charles A S., 160 Hansen, James, 130, 283–284 hard path of energy, 170 Hargreaves, James, 65 health effects, 146 table; 148–151, 154–155 heat: dynamic hypothesis of, 34, 46, 119; and electricity, 71–72; and energy, 34–38; and entropy, 45–46; and heat balance of earth, 119; and heat engine, 35–37, 87; mechanical equivalent of, 40; and mobility, 17–23; and motion, 11–17, 34–38; and political power, 37; and steam engines, 34–38; transformation of, 44 Held, David, 52 Homo, 2–5, 125, 171 Hoover Dam, 73–75, 74 fig Hubbert, Marion King, 159, 160 Human Development Index, 162 Hussein, Saddam, 141 hydraulic fracturing, 93, 160, 162, 198, 227, 264 hydropower, 11–12, 73–75, 74 fig., 248–253 Hydropower Regulatory Efficiency Act, 250, 251 India, 65, 68,, 69, 81, 85, 86, 144, 227, 252 Indonesia, 81, 87, 90, 139, 263 industrial revolution, 5–7 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 117–118, 129, 172 table International Energy Agency, 109, 272 International System of Units, 292–294 investment decision-making for energy, 108–110, 111 fig., 203–217, 219–268, 272–273 investment tax credits, 240, 250 IPCC See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iran, 85, 87, 90, 91, 138, 140–141, 143, 168, 228 Iraq, 85, 87, 90, 139, 141, 228 Iraq Petroleum Company, 139 Ireland, 187 iron, 63–64, 97–99, 224 Israel, 168, 175, 228 Italy, 10–11, 29, 56, 91, 131, 199, 263 Jacobson, Mark, 283 Japan, 17, 47, 62, 66, 81, 91, 96, 139, 144, 175, 227, 228, 230, 233, 236, 263, 264 Jevons, William Stanley, 7, 138, 156–157 Jordan, 95 Joule, James Prescott, 38–42, 39 fig., 294 Kant, Immanuel, 31 Kazakhstan, xv, 81, 85, 94–95, 143 Keeling, David, 122–124, 123 fig Kelvin, Lord See Thomson, William Kelvin temperature scale, 37, 42 Konti See Continental Oil Company (Germany) Kuwait, 85, 87, 141, 228 bin Laden, Osama, 228 Lancashire (England), 67–70 LCA See life cycle analysis LCOE See levelized cost of electricity levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), 216, 222 table Leyden jar, 28–29 Libya, 85, 87 life cycle analysis (LCA), 215, 222 table, 223 fig light emitting diodes (LED), 48 liquified natural gas (LNG) See natural gas LNG See natural gas Locke, John, 34, 52 Lovins, Amory B., 169–170 low carbon fuel standards (LCFS), 254–255 Magna Carta, 54, 54 fig., 55, 57, magnetism, 28–34 Malthus, Thomas, Manhattan Project, 96, 143 Index manufactured gas, 72, 89, 91–92 See also natural gas Marsh, George Perkins, 121 Marx, Karl, Mayer, Julius Robert, 38 Maxwell, James Clerk, 33–34 Maxwell’s equations, 34 mechanical equivalent of heat, 40 Merchant, Carolyn, 59 methane (CH4) See natural gas Milankovitch, Milutin, 125–126 mineral energy economy, Mitchell, Timothy, 83 mobility, 17–23 modern science, 59–61, 60 fig modern state, 51–75 Mongolia, 95 Mosaddegh, Mohammed, 140 motion, 11–17, 26, 34 Murdock, William, 91 Murphy, David, 162–164 Namibia, 95 natural gas: assessment of strengths and weaknesses of, 229–232; and climate change, 115–134; distribution of deposits of, 90 table; and electricity, 89; hydraulic fracturing for, 93; industry of, 91–93; and lighting, 89; liquified natural gas (LNG), 92, 230; physical nature of, 89; production of, 90–91, 93; reserves of, 90; versatility of, 89 See also manufactured gas Natural Gas Council, 274 Navajo Nation (United States), 235 NE See energy return on investment net energy (NE) See energy return on investment Netherlands, The, 28, 91, 139, 187, 193, 227 Newcomen, Thomas, 12–15, 52, 66–67, 98 Newton, Isaac, 34 Niagara Falls, 73 Niger, 85, 95 Nigeria, 85, 87, 90, 91 Norway, 90, 190, 193, 209, 278 Nuclear Energy Institute, 274 nuclear fuel cycle, 94 nuclear power, 142–144, 167–168, 233, 276 See also uranium nuclear weapons, 95–96, 138–139, 142–143 Obama, Barrack, 275, 288 ocean currents, 192 ocean energy, 191–193 See also, hydropower | 341 ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), 192 Oersted, Hans Christian, 30–32 oil: and Arab oil boycott, 168; assessment of strengths and weaknesses of, 226–229; and automobiles, 88; and climate change, 115–134; and diesel-electric locomotives, 88; distribution of deposits 85 table; and fourth energy transition, 167–168; and geopolitical tensions, 138–142; industry, 86–88; physical distribution of, 84–86; physical nature of, 84; reserves of, 85 table OPEC See Organization of Petroleum Exporting States organic energy economy, Organization of Petroleum Exporting States (OPEC), 87 Osama bin Laden, 228 Osborn, Fairfield, 121 Ottoman Empire, 139 Our Common Future, 209 Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza, 140–141 Pakistan, 144 Peabody Energy, 84 peaking, 158–160 petroleum: See oil photoelectric effect, 48 photosynthesis, 253–254 photovoltaic electricity See solar photovoltaic energy Planck, Max, 48 Plass, Gilbert, 121 plutonium, 7, 94, 95, 143–144 political ecology, 109–110, 111 fig Portugal, 131, 187 primary energy sources, 77–99, 171–200, 219–268 See also biomass energy, coal, hydropower, geothermal energy, natural gas, oil, solar energy, uranium, wind energy production tax credit, 245, 250, 265 Qatar, 85, 87, 90 quad, 103–105 See also units of energy qualitative assessment of primary energy sources, 203–215 quantitative assessment of primary energy sources, 215–217 quantum mechanics, 48 radioactivity, 48 railways, 19–22, 21 fig Regnault, Henri Victor, 40 342 | Index Reliable, Affordable, and Environmentally Sound Energy for America’s Future, 285 renewable energy, 171–175, 283–284 See also energy, primary energy sources renewable energy credits, 240 Renewable Fuels Association, 275 renewable portfolio standards, 240, 246, 266 repulsions and attractions, 26–27, 31, 49 Ricardo, David, Rio Tinto, 84 Rogers, Henry J., 73 Roman Empire, 52 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 140 Rosenfeld, Arthur H 169 Rosenfeld curve, 169, 170 fig Royal Dutch Shell, 227 rule of law, 54, 57, 61 Rumsey, James, 19 Russia See Russian Federation Russian Federation: affected by climate change, 131–132; coal deposits of, 80–81; and dependence on oil revenues, 276; and disputes with Ukraine, 141–142; natural gas deposits in, 90; and nuclear weapons, 142–143; oil deposits in, 85–86; uranium deposits in, 95, 143 salinity gradient energy, 192–193 Sankey, Riall, 103 Sankey diagram of energy flow, 103–107, 104 fig Saudi Arabia, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 140, 159, 228 Saudi Aramco, 238 Savery, Thomas, 12 scorecard, 219–224, 220 table, 222 table See also strengths and weaknesses of primary energy sources Scotland See United Kingdom second energy transition, 3–4 Sellafield nuclear complex (United Kingdom), 235 semiconductors See solar photovoltaic energy Siemens, 244 Silent Spring, 10, 121 slavery, 65–70 Smith, Adam, soft path of energy, 170 solar energy, 175–185, 180 fig., 239–244 See also concentrating solar power, solar photovoltaic energy, solar thermal energy solar photovoltaic energy: and band gap, 178; combined with solar thermal, 184; cost of, 241–242; electricity from, 185, 241; photovoltaic cells, 178–179, 179 fig.; rooftop installation, 181 fig.; and semiconductors, 176–178; and trade disputes, 242; utility scale, 181–183, 182 fig solar thermal energy, 175–176, 177 fig., 184 See also concentrating solar power South Africa, 2, 80, 81, 95 South Korea, 191 Spain, 177 fig., 180 fig., 181, 187, 244 steam boat, 19 steam engine, 16 fig., 34–38, 88 See also Watt, James Stephenson, George, 20–21 strengths and weaknesses of primary energy sources, 219–268, 220 table, 222 table strontium, 121 sustainability, 209–215 Sweden, 62, 64, 120–121, 263, 264 Syria, 168 Tait, Peter Guthrie, 45–46 Taiwan, 81 Tanzania, 95 Terra-gen Power, 244 textiles, 64–70 thermodynamic laws, 27, 38–46 third energy transition: creation of modern state and, 51–75; creation of modern world and, 4–23; depletion of resources in, 155–165; energy systems of, 101–109; geopolitical tensions in, 137–144; health and environmental issues in, 144–155; investment criteria for, 203–209; investment to create, 108–112; role of primary energy sources in, 77–99 Thomson, William, 40–46, 41 fig thorium, 7, 48 Three Mile Island, 144, 236 tidal current energy, 191–192 tidal range energy, 191 Time to Choose, A, 168 Toynbee, Arnold, Trevithick, Richard, 18 Trump, Donald, 288 Turkey, 139, 175, 263 Turkish Petroleum Company, 139 Turkmenistan, 90 Tyndall, John, 119 UK See United Kingdom Ukraine, xiii, xv, 80, 81, 95, 97, 131, 141–142, 144, 225, 236 Index Union of Soviet Socialists Republics, 87, 96–97, 139, 141, 142–143 See also Russian Federation United Arab Emirates, 85, 90 United Kingdom (NOTE: entries for United Kingdom may be indicated on cited page as Britain, England, Great Britain, Scotland, UK, United Kingdom, or Wales): coal deposits of, 80–81; coal industry in, 81–84; coal mining fatalities, 146; consumption of natural gas, 91; electricity from uranium in, 96–97; and fears of coal depletion, 138; and medieval warming, 126; natural gas industry in, 92–93; and nuclear weapons, 142; production and consumption of coal in, 81–83; replacement of firewood by coal, 9–11; and strategic interests in oil, 138–139; tidal range energy in, 191; transformation to modern state, 52–70; wind energy in, 184 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 288 United Nuclear Corporation, 235 United States: American Revolution and modern state, 52; changes in energy profile, 102 fig.; coal deposits of, 80–81; and coal for electricity, 224; coal industry in, 81–84; development as modern state, 62; and development of energy units, 47; electricity from photovoltaics, 241; electricity from uranium, 96–97; energy flow chart for, 104 fig.; and Iran, 228; and Iraq, 228; natural gas deposits in, 90; nuclear accidents in, 144; and oil crises, 168; oil deposits in, 85; oil imports and exports, 140; oil industry in, 85–86; photovoltaic electricity in, 183; solar energy resources, 180 fig.; solar thermal energy, 175; strategic interests in oil, 139–142; uranium deposits in, 95; uranium industry in, 96–97; wind energy, 184, 188 fig units of energy, 291–296 uranium: assessment of strengths and weaknesses of, 232–237; discovery of, 93; and discovery of radioactivity 48; | 343 distribution of deposits table, 95; electricity from, 96–97; enrichment of, 143–144; and fourth energy transition, 167–168; and geopolitical tensions, 142–144; industry, 96–97; and life cycle analysis (LCA), 234; physical nature of, 93–94; preparation of fuel from, 94; prices of, 232–233; reserves of, 94–95; and third energy transition, See also nuclear power US Atomic Energy Commission, 96, 102 US Department of Energy, 249 US Geological Service (USGS), 159 US National Academy of Sciences, 122, 128 US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 280 USSR See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Ux Consulting, 232 Uzbekistan, 95 Venezuela, 85, 86, 87, 90 Vestas, 244 Vogt, William, 121 Volta, Alessandro, 29–30, 48 Vostsibugol, 84 Wales See United Kingdom water power See hydropower Watt, James, 13–16, 98, 291 wave power, 192 Webber, Michael, 282 Wennerlind, Carl, 59 Westinghouse, George, 72 Whitney, Eli, 68 wind energy, 11–12, 184–188, 185 fig., 188 fig., 244–248 wind resources, 188 fig wind turbine, 185 fig., 244 work, 27, 44–45 World Commission on Environment and Development, 209–210 World Nuclear Association, 234 Wrigley, E.A., 5–6 Xiaoping, Deng, 142 Yanukovych, Viktor, 141–142 ... agriculture, a change that vastly increased the availability of food and thus energy supplies.7 Farming and animal husbandry may have originated with improvement of climate after the last ice age, and... Generating all that electricity with coal and oil polluted the air Automobiles demanded ever more space for highways and parking and likewise dumped toxic materials into air and water Gasoline ready -to- buy... it to areas like the Fens on the southeastern coast in exchange for grain and pottery Earlier uses of coal dated to the Bronze Age, about four thousand years ago When the Romans left Britain,