handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations frank r. spellman

LEWIS PUBLISHERS A CRC Press Company Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations Handbook of Frank R. Spellman © 2003 by CRC Press LLC This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microÞlming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. SpeciÞc permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identiÞcation and explanation, without intent to infringe. Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-627-0 Library of Congress Card Number 2003040119 Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Spellman, Frank R. Handbook of water & wastewater treatment plant operations / by Frank R. Spellman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-627-0 (alk. paper) 1. Water—treatment plants—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Sewage disposal plants—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Water—PuriÞcation—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 4. Sewage—PuriÞcation—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title: Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations. II. Title. TD434.S64 2003 628.1 ¢ 62—dc21 2003040119 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Preface Water does not divide; it connects. With simplicity it links all aspects of our existence. David Rothenberg and Marta Ulvaenus In Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations , the intent of the author is twofold. The Þrst intent is to consolidate the information and experience in waterworks and wastewater treatment plant operations that have evolved as a result of technological advances in the Þeld, and as a result of the concepts and policies promulgated by the environmental laws and the subse- quent guidelines. The second intent is to discuss step-by- step procedures for the correct and efÞcient operation of water and wastewater treatment systems. Tertiary to this twofold intent is the proper preparation of operators to qualify for state licensure and certiÞcation examinations. With the impetus given to water quality improvement through the Municipal Construction Grants Program, the United States has undertaken an unprecedented building program for new and improved water and wastewater treat- ment systems. To date, much emphasis has been placed on training engineers to plan, design, and construct treatment facilities. At present, many programs in various engineer- ing disciplines at many universities offer courses in water and wastewater treatment plant design and operation. This text is not about the planning, designing, or con- struction of water and wastewater treatment facilities. While these tasks are paramount to conception and con- struction of needed facilities and needed infrastructure, many excellent texts are available that cover these impor- tant areas. This text is not about engineering at all. Instead, it is about operations and is designed for the operator. We often forget the old axiom: someone must build it, but once built, someone must operate it. It is the operation of “it” that concerns us here. Several excellent texts have been written on water and wastewater treatment plant operations. Thus, the logical question is, why a new text covering a well-trodden road? The compound answer is a text that is comprehensive in scope, current, and deals with real world problems involved with plant operations is needed. The simple answer is that after September 11, things have changed. Many of these changes were apparent before Septem- ber 11; at the same time, many of our present needs were not so apparent. Consider, for example, the need for plants to become more efÞcient in operation and more economical in practice. This is not new, but it now takes on added importance because of the threat of privatization. We cover privatization and the benchmarking process in this text. On the other hand, how many of us thought security was a big deal prior to September 11? Some of us did, while some of us did not give it any thought at all. Today, things are different; we must adjust or fall behind. In the present climate, falling behind on the security of our potable water supplies is not an option. We must aggressively protect our precious water sources and those ancillaries that are critical to maintaining and protecting water quality. We cover plant security concerns in this text. There are other current issues. For example, arsenic in drinking water received a lot of coverage in the press recently. We all know that arsenic is a deadly poison, depending on dose, of course. Headlines stating that arsenic has been found in certain municipal drinking water supplies are a red ßag issue to many people. But is it really an issue? We cover arsenic in drinking water in this text. Another red ßag issue that has received some press and the attention of regulators is the presence of patho- genic protozoans, such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium , in drinking water supplies. We cover both of these proto- zoans in this text. In wastewater treatment (as well as water treatment), a lot of attention has been focused on disinfection by- products in water efßuents outfalled into receiving water bodies. We cover disinfection by-products in this text. Water and wastewater treatment is about mitigating the problems mentioned above. However, treatment oper- ations are about much more. To handle today’s problems, water and wastewater treatment system operators must be generalists. Herein lies the problem. Many of the texts presently available for water and wastewater operator use are limited in scope and narrowly focused in content. Most of these texts take a bare bones approach to presentation. That is, the basics of each unit process are usually ade- quately covered, but this is the extent of the coverage. At present, available texts either ignore, avoid, or pay cursory attention to such important areas as the multiple- barrier concept, maintaining infrastructure, benchmarking, plant security, operator roles, water hydraulics, microbi- ology, water ecology, basic electrical principles, pumping, conveyance, ßow measurement, basic water chemistry, water quality issues, biomonitoring, sampling and testing, water sources, and watershed protection. All of these important topics are thoroughly discussed in Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations. Though directed at water and wastewater operators, this book will serve the needs of students; teachers; con- © 2003 by CRC Press LLC sulting engineers; and technical personnel in city, state, and federal organizations who must review operations and operating procedures. In order to maximize the usefulness of the material contained in the test, it has been presented in plain English in a simpliÞed and concise format. Many tables have been developed, using a variety of sources. To assure correlation to modern practice and design, illustrative problems are presented in terms of commonly used operational parameters. Each chapter ends with a chapter review test to help evaluate mastery of the concepts presented. Before going on to the next chapter, take the review test, compare your answers to the key provided in Appendix A, and review the pertinent information for any problems you missed. If you miss many items, review the whole chapter. The indented notes displayed in various locations throughout this text indicate or emphasize important points to study carefully. This text is accessible to those who have no experience with water and wastewater operations. If you work through the text systematically, you can acquire an under- standing of and skill in water and wastewater operations. This will add a critical component to your professional knowledge. Frank R. Spellman Norfolk, VA © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Contents PART IWater and Wastewater Operations: An Overview Chapter 1Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations 1.1Introduction 1.2The Paradigm Shift 1.2.1A Change in the Way Things are Understood and Done 1.3Multiple-Barrier Concept 1.3.1Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations 1.4Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations 1.4.1Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations 1.4.2Maintaining Infrastructure 1.4.3Privatizing and/or Reengineering 1.4.4Benchmarking 1.4.4.1Benchmarking: The Process 1.4.5The Bottom Line on Privatization 1.5Upgrading Security 1.5.1The Bottom Line on Security 1.6Technical Management vs. Professional Management 1.7Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Chapter 2Water and Wastewater Operators and Their Roles 2.1Water and Wastewater Operators 2.2Setting the Record Straight 2.2.1The Computer-Literate Jack 2.2.2Plant Operators as Emergency Responders 2.2.3Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions 2.3Operator CertiÞcation/Licensure 2.4Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Chapter 3Water and Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology 3.1Setting the Stage 3.2Treatment Process Models 3.3Key Terms Used in Waterworks and Wastewater Operations 3.3.1Terminology and DeÞnitions 3.4Chapter Review Question and Problems References © 2003 by CRC Press LLC PART IIWater/Wastewater Operations: Math and Technical Aspects Chapter 4Water and Wastewater Math Operations 4.1Introduction 4.2Calculation Steps 4.3Table of Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols 4.4Typical Water and Wastewater Math Operations 4.4.1Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median 4.4.2Ratio 4.4.3Percent 4.4.3.1Practical Percentage Calculations 4.4.4Units and Conversions 4.4.4.1Temperature Conversions 4.4.4.2Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million) 4.5Measurements: Areas and Volumes 4.5.1Area of a Rectangle 4.5.2Area of a Circle 4.5.3Area of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank 4.5.4Volume Calculations 4.5.4.1Volume of Rectangular Tank 4.5.4.2Volume of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank 4.5.4.3Example Volume Problems 4.6Force, Pressure, and Head 4.7Flow 4.7.1Flow Calculations 4.7.1.1Instantaneous Flow Rates 4.7.1.2Flow through a Full Pipeline 4.7.2Velocity Calculations 4.7.3Average Flow Rate Calculations 4.7.4Flow Conversion Calculations 4.8Detention Time 4.8.1Hydraulic Detention Time 4.8.1.1Detention Time in Days 4.8.1.2Detention Time in Hours 4.8.1.3Detention Time in Minutes 4.9Chemical Dosage Calculations 4.9.1Chlorine Dosage 4.9.2Hypochlorite Dosage 4.10Percent Removal 4.11Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor 4.12SpeciÞc Gravity 4.13Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge 4.14Horsepower 4.14.1Water Horsepower 4.14.2Brake Horsepower 4.14.3Motor Horsepower 4.15Electrical Power 4.16Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation 4.16.1Calculating Feed Rate 4.16.2Calculating Solution Strength 4.17Filtration 4.17.1Calculating the Rate of Filtration 4.17.2Filter Backwash © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 4.18Practical Water Distribution System Calculations 4.18.1Water Flow Velocity 4.18.2Storage Tank Calculations 4.18.3Distribution System Disinfection Calculations 4.19Complex Conversions 4.19.1Concentration to Quantity 4.19.1.1Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Pounds 4.19.1.2Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Pounds/Day 4.19.1.3Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Kilograms per Day 4.19.1.4Concentration (milligrams/kilogram) to pounds/ton 4.19.2Quantity to Concentration 4.19.2.1Pounds to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.2.2Pounds per Day to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.2.3Kilograms per Day to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.3Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate 4.19.3.1Pounds to Tank Volume (Million Gallons) 4.19.3.2Pounds per Day to Flow (Million Gallons per Day) 4.19.3.3Kilograms per Day to Flow (Million Gallons per Day) 4.20Chapter Review Questions and Problems Reference Chapter 5Water Hydraulics 5.1What is Water Hydraulics? 5.2Basic Concepts 5.2.1Stevin’s Law 5.3Properties of Water 5.3.1Density and SpeciÞc Gravity 5.4Force and Pressure 5.4.1Hydrostatic Pressure 5.4.2Effects of Water under Pressure 5.5Head 5.5.1Static Head 5.5.2Friction Head 5.5.3Velocity Head 5.5.4Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 5.5.5Pressure/Head 5.5.6Head/Pressure 5.6Flow/Discharge Rate: Water in Motion 5.6.1Area/Velocity 5.6.2Pressure/Velocity 5.7Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem 5.7.1Law of Conservation of Energy 5.7.2Energy Head 5.7.3Piezometric Surface 5.7.3.1Head Loss 5.7.3.2Hydraulic Grade Line 5.7.4Bernoulli’s Theorem 5.7.4.1Bernoulli’s Equation 5.8Hydraulic Machines (Pumps) 5.8.1Pumping Hydraulics 5.9Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 5.9.1Well Hydraulics 5.9.2Wet Well Hydraulics © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 5.10Friction Head Loss 5.10.1Flow in Pipelines 5.10.2Pipe and Open Flow Basics 5.10.3Major Head Loss 5.10.3.1Components of Major Head Loss 5.10.3.2Calculating Major Head Loss 5.10.4Minor Head Loss 5.11Basic Piping Hydraulics 5.11.1Piping Networks 5.11.1.1Energy Losses in Pipe Networks 5.11.1.2Pipes in Series 5.11.1.3Pipes in Parallel 5.12Open-Channel Flow 5.12.1Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 5.12.1.1Laminar and Turbulent Flow 5.12.1.2Uniform and Varied Flow 5.12.1.3Critical Flow 5.12.1.4Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 5.12.2Open-Channel Flow Calculations 5.12.3Open-Channel Flow: The Bottom Line 5.13Flow Measurement 5.13.1Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way 5.13.2Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement 5.13.3Flow Measuring Devices 5.13.3.1Differential Pressure Flowmeters 5.13.3.2Magnetic Flowmeters 5.13.3.3Ultrasonic Flowmeters 5.13.3.4Velocity Flowmeters 5.13.3.5Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 5.13.4Open-Channel Flow Measurement 5.13.4.1Weirs 5.13.4.2Flumes 5.14Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Chapter 6Fundamentals of Electricity 6.1Electricity: What Is It? 6.2Nature of Electricity 6.3The Structure of Matter 6.4Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators 6.5Static Electricity 6.5.1Charged Bodies 6.5.2Coulomb’s Law 6.5.3Electrostatic Fields 6.6Magnetism 6.6.1Magnetic Materials 6.6.2Magnetic Earth 6.7Difference in Potential 6.7.1The Water Analogy 6.7.2Principal Methods of Producing Voltage 6.8Current 6.9Resistance 6.10Battery-Supplied Electricity © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 6.10.1The Voltaic Cell 6.10.2Primary and Secondary Cells 6.10.3Battery 6.10.3.1Battery Operation 6.10.3.2Combining Cells 6.10.4Types of Batteries 6.10.4.1Dry Cell 6.10.4.2Lead-Acid Battery 6.10.4.3Alkaline Cell 6.10.4.4Nickel-Cadmium Cell 6.10.4.5Mercury Cell 6.10.4.6Battery Characteristics 6.11The Simple Electrical Circuit 6.11.1Schematic Representation 6.12Ohm’s law 6.13Electrical Power 6.13.1Electrical Power Calculations 6.14Electrical Energy 6.15Series DC Circuit Characteristics 6.15.1Series Circuit Resistance 6.15.2Series Circuit Current 6.15.3Series Circuit Voltage 6.15.4Series Circuit Power 6.15.5Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits 6.15.6General Series Circuit Analysis 6.15.6.1Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 6.16Ground 6.17Open and Short Circuits 6.18Parallel DC Circuits 6.18.1Parallel Circuit Characteristics 6.18.2Voltage in Parallel Circuits 6.18.3Current in Parallel Circuits 6.18.4Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law 6.18.5Parallel Circuit Resistance 6.18.5.1Reciprocal Method 6.18.5.2Product over the Sum Method 6.18.5.3Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit 6.18.6Power in Parallel Circuits 6.18.7Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits 6.19Series-Parallel Circuits 6.19.1Solving a Series-Parallel Circuit 6.20Conductors 6.20.1Unit Size of Conductors 6.20.1.1Square Mil 6.20.1.2Circular Mil 6.20.1.3Circular-Mil-Foot 6.20.1.4Resistivity 6.20.1.5Wire Measurement 6.20.2Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size 6.20.2.1Copper vs. Other Metal Conductors 6.20.2.2Temperature CoefÞcient 6.20.3Conductor Insulation 6.20.4Conductor Splices and Terminal Connections 6.20.5Soldering Operations © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 6.20.6Solderless Connections 6.20.7Insulation Tape 6.21Electromagnetism 6.21.1Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor 6.21.2Polarity of a Single Conductor 6.21.3Field around Two Parallel Conductors 6.21.4Magnetic Field of a Coil 6.21.4.1Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil 6.21.4.2Strength of an Electromagnetic Field 6.21.5Magnetic Units 6.21.6Properties of Magnetic Materials 6.21.6.1Permeability 6.21.6.2Hysteresis 6.21.7Electromagnets 6.22AC Theory 6.22.1Basic AC Generator 6.22.1.1Cycle 6.22.1.2Frequency, Period, and Wavelength 6.22.2Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current 6.22.2.1Peak Amplitude 6.22.2.2Peak-to-Peak Amplitude 6.22.2.3Instantaneous Amplitude 6.22.2.4Effective or Root-Mean-Square Value 6.22.2.5Average Value 6.22.3Resistance in AC Circuits 6.22.4Phase Relationships 6.23Inductance 6.23.1Self-Inductance 6.23.2Mutual Inductance 6.23.3Calculation of Total Inductance 6.24Practical Electrical Applications 6.24.1Electrical Power Generation 6.24.2DC Generators 6.24.3AC Generators 6.24.4Motors 6.24.4.1DC Motors 6.24.4.2AC Motors 6.24.5Transformers 6.24.6Power Distribution System Protection 6.24.6.1Fuses 6.24.6.2Circuit Breakers 6.24.6.3Control Devices 6.25Chapter Review Questions and Problems Chapter 7Hydraulic Machines: Pumps 7.1Introduction 7.2Archimedes’ Screw 7.3Pumping Hydraulics 7.3.1DeÞnitions 7.4Basic Principles of Water Hydraulics 7.4.1Weight of Air 7.4.2Weight of Water 7.4.3Weight of Water Related to the Weight of Air 7.4.4Water at Rest © 2003 by CRC Press LLC [...]... free of disease organisms and toxic substances In addition, the purpose of wastewater treatment has been to protect the health and well being of our communities Water and wastewater treatment operations have accomplished this goal by (1) prevention of disease and nuisance conditions; (2) avoidance of contamination of water supplies and navigable waters; (3) maintenance of clean water for survival of. .. controversy, and is often surrounded by myth and misinformation Yet, service delivery remains the “hidden function” of local government.5 In Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, we focus on sanitary (or environmental) services (excluding solid-waste disposal) — water and wastewater treatment — because they have been and remain indispensable for the functioning and growth of cities... protect and secure water supply /wastewater treatment infrastructure are comprehensive and carried out expeditiously Another consequence is a heightened concern among citizens in the U.S over the security of their critical water and wastewater infrastructure The nation’s water and wastewater infrastructure consisting of several thousand publicly owned water and wastewater treatment plants, more than... December of that year, a new independent body — EPA — was created to bring under one roof all of the pollutioncontrol programs related to air, water, and solid wastes In 1972, the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments expanded the role of the federal government in water pollution control and significantly increased federal funding for construction of wastewater treatment plants Many of the wastewater treatment. .. MULTIPLE-BARRIER APPROACH: WASTEWATER OPERATIONS Not shown in Figure 1.1 is the fate of the used water What happens to the wastewater produced? Wastewater is treated via the multiple-barrier treatment train, which is the combination of unit processes used in the system The primary mission of the wastewater treatment plant (and the operator/practitioner) is to treat the wastestream to a level of purity acceptable... multiple barrier approach Essentially, the Handbook takes the © 2003 by CRC Press LLC hidden part out of services delivered by water and wastewater professionals Water service professionals provide water for typical urban domestic and commercial uses, eliminate wastes, protect the public health and safety, and help control many forms of pollution Wastewater service professionals treat the urban wastestream... of thousands of miles of water distribution and sanitary sewers, and another 200,000 miles of storm sewers is one of America’s most valuable resources, with treatment and distribution/collection systems valued at more than $2.5 trillion Wastewater treatment operations taken alone include the sanitary and storm sewers, forming an extensive network that runs near or beneath key buildings and roads, and. .. plants in operation today are the result of federal grants made over the years For example, because of the 1977 Clean Water Act Amendment to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 and the 1987 Clean Water Act Reauthorization Bill, funding for wastewater treatment plants was provided Many large sanitation districts, with their multiple plant operations, and an even larger number of single plant. .. environment Water and wastewater treatment services are the urban circulatory system.6 In addition, like the human circulatory system, the urban circulatory system is less than effective if flow is not maintained Maintaining flow is what water and wastewater operations is all about This seems easy enough; water has been flowing literally for eons However, this is not to say that water and wastewater operations. .. stricter water quality and effluent standards under the Clean Water Act and SDWA Moreover, as previously mentioned, new unfunded mandated safety regulations, such as OSHA’s PSM and EPA’s RMP, are expensive to implement using local sources of revenues or state revolving loan funds 3 Hidden function — Earlier we stated that much of the work of water and wastewater treatment is a hidden function Because of this . Management 1.7Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Chapter 2Water and Wastewater Operators and Their Roles 2. 1Water and Wastewater Operators 2.2Setting the Record Straight 2.2.1The Computer-Literate. Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations. Though directed at water and wastewater operators, this book will serve the needs of students; teachers; con- © 2003 by CRC Press. your professional knowledge. Frank R. Spellman Norfolk, VA © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Contents PART IWater and Wastewater Operations: An Overview Chapter 1Problems Facing Water and Wastewater