Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations - Chapter 1 ppsx

Frank R Spellman Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations LEWIS PUBLISHERS A CRC Press Company Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Spellman, Frank R Handbook of water & wastewater treatment plant operations / by Frank R Spellman p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 1-56670-627-0 (alk paper) Water—treatment plants—Handbooks, manuals, etc Sewage disposal plants—Handbooks, manuals, etc Water—PuriÞcation—Handbooks, manuals, etc Sewage—PuriÞcation—Handbooks, manuals, etc I Title: Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations II Title TD434.S64 2003 628.1¢62—dc21 2003040119 This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated A wide variety of references are listed Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microÞlming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale SpeciÞc permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431 Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identiÞcation and explanation, without intent to infringe Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-627-0 Library of Congress Card Number 2003040119 Printed in the United States of America Printed on acid-free paper © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Preface Water does not divide; it connects With simplicity it links all aspects of our existence David Rothenberg and Marta Ulvaenus In Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, the intent of the author is twofold The Þrst intent is to consolidate the information and experience in waterworks and wastewater treatment plant operations that have evolved as a result of technological advances in the Þeld, and as a result of the concepts and policies promulgated by the environmental laws and the subsequent guidelines The second intent is to discuss step-bystep procedures for the correct and efÞcient operation of water and wastewater treatment systems Tertiary to this twofold intent is the proper preparation of operators to qualify for state licensure and certiÞcation examinations With the impetus given to water quality improvement through the Municipal Construction Grants Program, the United States has undertaken an unprecedented building program for new and improved water and wastewater treatment systems To date, much emphasis has been placed on training engineers to plan, design, and construct treatment facilities At present, many programs in various engineering disciplines at many universities offer courses in water and wastewater treatment plant design and operation This text is not about the planning, designing, or construction of water and wastewater treatment facilities While these tasks are paramount to conception and construction of needed facilities and needed infrastructure, many excellent texts are available that cover these important areas This text is not about engineering at all Instead, it is about operations and is designed for the operator We often forget the old axiom: someone must build it, but once built, someone must operate it It is the operation of “it” that concerns us here Several excellent texts have been written on water and wastewater treatment plant operations Thus, the logical question is, why a new text covering a well-trodden road? The compound answer is a text that is comprehensive in scope, current, and deals with real world problems involved with plant operations is needed The simple answer is that after September 11, things have changed Many of these changes were apparent before September 11; at the same time, many of our present needs were not so apparent Consider, for example, the need for plants to become more efÞcient in operation and more economical in practice This is not new, but it now takes on added importance because of the threat of privatization We cover © 2003 by CRC Press LLC privatization and the benchmarking process in this text On the other hand, how many of us thought security was a big deal prior to September 11? Some of us did, while some of us did not give it any thought at all Today, things are different; we must adjust or fall behind In the present climate, falling behind on the security of our potable water supplies is not an option We must aggressively protect our precious water sources and those ancillaries that are critical to maintaining and protecting water quality We cover plant security concerns in this text There are other current issues For example, arsenic in drinking water received a lot of coverage in the press recently We all know that arsenic is a deadly poison, depending on dose, of course Headlines stating that arsenic has been found in certain municipal drinking water supplies are a red ßag issue to many people But is it really an issue? We cover arsenic in drinking water in this text Another red ßag issue that has received some press and the attention of regulators is the presence of pathogenic protozoans, such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium, in drinking water supplies We cover both of these protozoans in this text In wastewater treatment (as well as water treatment), a lot of attention has been focused on disinfection byproducts in water efßuents outfalled into receiving water bodies We cover disinfection by-products in this text Water and wastewater treatment is about mitigating the problems mentioned above However, treatment operations are about much more To handle today’s problems, water and wastewater treatment system operators must be generalists Herein lies the problem Many of the texts presently available for water and wastewater operator use are limited in scope and narrowly focused in content Most of these texts take a bare bones approach to presentation That is, the basics of each unit process are usually adequately covered, but this is the extent of the coverage At present, available texts either ignore, avoid, or pay cursory attention to such important areas as the multiplebarrier concept, maintaining infrastructure, benchmarking, plant security, operator roles, water hydraulics, microbiology, water ecology, basic electrical principles, pumping, conveyance, ßow measurement, basic water chemistry, water quality issues, biomonitoring, sampling and testing, water sources, and watershed protection All of these important topics are thoroughly discussed in Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations Though directed at water and wastewater operators, this book will serve the needs of students; teachers; con- sulting engineers; and technical personnel in city, state, and federal organizations who must review operations and operating procedures In order to maximize the usefulness of the material contained in the test, it has been presented in plain English in a simpliÞed and concise format Many tables have been developed, using a variety of sources To assure correlation to modern practice and design, illustrative problems are presented in terms of commonly used operational parameters Each chapter ends with a chapter review test to help evaluate mastery of the concepts presented Before going on to the next chapter, take the review test, compare your answers to the key provided in Appendix A, and review © 2003 by CRC Press LLC the pertinent information for any problems you missed If you miss many items, review the whole chapter The indented notes displayed in various locations throughout this text indicate or emphasize important points to study carefully This text is accessible to those who have no experience with water and wastewater operations If you work through the text systematically, you can acquire an understanding of and skill in water and wastewater operations This will add a critical component to your professional knowledge Frank R Spellman Norfolk, VA Contents PART I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview Chapter Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations 1.1 1.2 Introduction The Paradigm Shift 1.2.1 A Change in the Way Things are Understood and Done 1.3 Multiple-Barrier Concept 1.3.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations 1.4 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations 1.4.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations 1.4.2 Maintaining Infrastructure 1.4.3 Privatizing and/or Reengineering 1.4.4 Benchmarking 1.4.4.1 Benchmarking: The Process 1.4.5 The Bottom Line on Privatization 1.5 Upgrading Security 1.5.1 The Bottom Line on Security 1.6 Technical Management vs Professional Management 1.7 Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Chapter Water and Wastewater Operators and Their Roles 2.1 2.2 Water and Wastewater Operators Setting the Record Straight 2.2.1 The Computer-Literate Jack 2.2.2 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders 2.2.3 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions 2.3 Operator CertiÞcation/Licensure 2.4 Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Chapter Water and Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology 3.1 3.2 3.3 Setting the Stage Treatment Process Models Key Terms Used in Waterworks and Wastewater Operations 3.3.1 Terminology and DeÞnitions 3.4 Chapter Review Question and Problems References © 2003 by CRC Press LLC PART II Chapter 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 Water/Wastewater Operations: Math and Technical Aspects Water and Wastewater Math Operations Introduction Calculation Steps Table of Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols Typical Water and Wastewater Math Operations 4.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median 4.4.2 Ratio 4.4.3 Percent 4.4.3.1 Practical Percentage Calculations 4.4.4 Units and Conversions 4.4.4.1 Temperature Conversions 4.4.4.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million) Measurements: Areas and Volumes 4.5.1 Area of a Rectangle 4.5.2 Area of a Circle 4.5.3 Area of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank 4.5.4 Volume Calculations 4.5.4.1 Volume of Rectangular Tank 4.5.4.2 Volume of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank 4.5.4.3 Example Volume Problems Force, Pressure, and Head Flow 4.7.1 Flow Calculations 4.7.1.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates 4.7.1.2 Flow through a Full Pipeline 4.7.2 Velocity Calculations 4.7.3 Average Flow Rate Calculations 4.7.4 Flow Conversion Calculations Detention Time 4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time 4.8.1.1 Detention Time in Days 4.8.1.2 Detention Time in Hours 4.8.1.3 Detention Time in Minutes Chemical Dosage Calculations 4.9.1 Chlorine Dosage 4.9.2 Hypochlorite Dosage Percent Removal Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor SpeciÞc Gravity Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge Horsepower 4.14.1 Water Horsepower 4.14.2 Brake Horsepower 4.14.3 Motor Horsepower Electrical Power Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation 4.16.1 Calculating Feed Rate 4.16.2 Calculating Solution Strength Filtration 4.17.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration 4.17.2 Filter Backwash © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 4.18 Practical Water Distribution System Calculations 4.18.1 Water Flow Velocity 4.18.2 Storage Tank Calculations 4.18.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations 4.19 Complex Conversions 4.19.1 Concentration to Quantity 4.19.1.1 Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Pounds 4.19.1.2 Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Pounds/Day 4.19.1.3 Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Kilograms per Day 4.19.1.4 Concentration (milligrams/kilogram) to pounds/ton 4.19.2 Quantity to Concentration 4.19.2.1 Pounds to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.2.2 Pounds per Day to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.2.3 Kilograms per Day to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate 4.19.3.1 Pounds to Tank Volume (Million Gallons) 4.19.3.2 Pounds per Day to Flow (Million Gallons per Day) 4.19.3.3 Kilograms per Day to Flow (Million Gallons per Day) 4.20 Chapter Review Questions and Problems Reference Chapter 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 Water Hydraulics What is Water Hydraulics? Basic Concepts 5.2.1 Stevin’s Law Properties of Water 5.3.1 Density and SpeciÞc Gravity Force and Pressure 5.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure 5.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure Head 5.5.1 Static Head 5.5.2 Friction Head 5.5.3 Velocity Head 5.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 5.5.5 Pressure/Head 5.5.6 Head/Pressure Flow/Discharge Rate: Water in Motion 5.6.1 Area/Velocity 5.6.2 Pressure/Velocity Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem 5.7.1 Law of Conservation of Energy 5.7.2 Energy Head 5.7.3 Piezometric Surface 5.7.3.1 Head Loss 5.7.3.2 Hydraulic Grade Line 5.7.4 Bernoulli’s Theorem 5.7.4.1 Bernoulli’s Equation Hydraulic Machines (Pumps) 5.8.1 Pumping Hydraulics Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 5.9.1 Well Hydraulics 5.9.2 Wet Well Hydraulics © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 5.10 Friction 5.10.1 5.10.2 5.10.3 Head Loss Flow in Pipelines Pipe and Open Flow Basics Major Head Loss 5.10.3.1 Components of Major Head Loss 5.10.3.2 Calculating Major Head Loss 5.10.4 Minor Head Loss 5.11 Basic Piping Hydraulics 5.11.1 Piping Networks 5.11.1.1 Energy Losses in Pipe Networks 5.11.1.2 Pipes in Series 5.11.1.3 Pipes in Parallel 5.12 Open-Channel Flow 5.12.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 5.12.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 5.12.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow 5.12.1.3 Critical Flow 5.12.1.4 Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 5.12.2 Open-Channel Flow Calculations 5.12.3 Open-Channel Flow: The Bottom Line 5.13 Flow Measurement 5.13.1 Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way 5.13.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement 5.13.3 Flow Measuring Devices 5.13.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters 5.13.3.2 Magnetic Flowmeters 5.13.3.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 5.13.3.4 Velocity Flowmeters 5.13.3.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 5.13.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement 5.13.4.1 Weirs 5.13.4.2 Flumes 5.14 Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Chapter Fundamentals of Electricity 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Electricity: What Is It? Nature of Electricity The Structure of Matter Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators Static Electricity 6.5.1 Charged Bodies 6.5.2 Coulomb’s Law 6.5.3 Electrostatic Fields 6.6 Magnetism 6.6.1 Magnetic Materials 6.6.2 Magnetic Earth 6.7 Difference in Potential 6.7.1 The Water Analogy 6.7.2 Principal Methods of Producing Voltage 6.8 Current 6.9 Resistance 6.10 Battery-Supplied Electricity © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 6.10.1 6.10.2 6.10.3 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 The Voltaic Cell Primary and Secondary Cells Battery 6.10.3.1 Battery Operation 6.10.3.2 Combining Cells 6.10.4 Types of Batteries 6.10.4.1 Dry Cell 6.10.4.2 Lead-Acid Battery 6.10.4.3 Alkaline Cell 6.10.4.4 Nickel-Cadmium Cell 6.10.4.5 Mercury Cell 6.10.4.6 Battery Characteristics The Simple Electrical Circuit 6.11.1 Schematic Representation Ohm’s law Electrical Power 6.13.1 Electrical Power Calculations Electrical Energy Series DC Circuit Characteristics 6.15.1 Series Circuit Resistance 6.15.2 Series Circuit Current 6.15.3 Series Circuit Voltage 6.15.4 Series Circuit Power 6.15.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits 6.15.6 General Series Circuit Analysis 6.15.6.1 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Ground Open and Short Circuits Parallel DC Circuits 6.18.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics 6.18.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits 6.18.3 Current in Parallel Circuits 6.18.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law 6.18.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance 6.18.5.1 Reciprocal Method 6.18.5.2 Product over the Sum Method 6.18.5.3 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit 6.18.6 Power in Parallel Circuits 6.18.7 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits Series-Parallel Circuits 6.19.1 Solving a Series-Parallel Circuit Conductors 6.20.1 Unit Size of Conductors 6.20.1.1 Square Mil 6.20.1.2 Circular Mil 6.20.1.3 Circular-Mil-Foot 6.20.1.4 Resistivity 6.20.1.5 Wire Measurement 6.20.2 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size 6.20.2.1 Copper vs Other Metal Conductors 6.20.2.2 Temperature CoefÞcient 6.20.3 Conductor Insulation 6.20.4 Conductor Splices and Terminal Connections 6.20.5 Soldering Operations © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 6.21 6.22 6.23 6.24 6.25 6.20.6 Solderless Connections 6.20.7 Insulation Tape Electromagnetism 6.21.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor 6.21.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor 6.21.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors 6.21.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil 6.21.4.1 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil 6.21.4.2 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field 6.21.5 Magnetic Units 6.21.6 Properties of Magnetic Materials 6.21.6.1 Permeability 6.21.6.2 Hysteresis 6.21.7 Electromagnets AC Theory 6.22.1 Basic AC Generator 6.22.1.1 Cycle 6.22.1.2 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength 6.22.2 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current 6.22.2.1 Peak Amplitude 6.22.2.2 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude 6.22.2.3 Instantaneous Amplitude 6.22.2.4 Effective or Root-Mean-Square Value 6.22.2.5 Average Value 6.22.3 Resistance in AC Circuits 6.22.4 Phase Relationships Inductance 6.23.1 Self-Inductance 6.23.2 Mutual Inductance 6.23.3 Calculation of Total Inductance Practical Electrical Applications 6.24.1 Electrical Power Generation 6.24.2 DC Generators 6.24.3 AC Generators 6.24.4 Motors 6.24.4.1 DC Motors 6.24.4.2 AC Motors 6.24.5 Transformers 6.24.6 Power Distribution System Protection 6.24.6.1 Fuses 6.24.6.2 Circuit Breakers 6.24.6.3 Control Devices Chapter Review Questions and Problems Chapter 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Hydraulic Machines: Pumps Introduction Archimedes’ Screw Pumping Hydraulics 7.3.1 DeÞnitions Basic Principles of Water Hydraulics 7.4.1 Weight of Air 7.4.2 Weight of Water 7.4.3 Weight of Water Related to the Weight of Air 7.4.4 Water at Rest © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 18.9.3 Rotating Biological Contactors 18.9.3.1 RBC Equipment 18.9.3.2 RBC Operation 18.9.3.3 RBC: Expected Performance 18.9.3.4 Operator Observations, Process Problems, and Troubleshooting 18.9.3.5 RBC: Process Control Calculations 18.10 Activated Sludge 18.10.1 Activated Sludge Terminology 18.10.2 Activated Sludge Process: Equipment 18.10.2.1 Aeration Tank 18.10.2.2 Aeration 18.10.2.3 Settling Tank 18.10.2.4 Return Sludge 18.10.2.5 Waste Sludge 18.10.3 Overview of Activated Sludge Process 18.10.4 Activated Sludge Process: Factors Affecting Operation 18.10.4.1 Growth Curve 18.10.5 Activated Sludge Formation 18.10.6 Activated Sludge: Performance-Controlling Factors 18.10.6.1 Aeration 18.10.6.2 Alkalinity 18.10.6.3 Nutrients 18.10.6.4 pH 18.10.6.5 Temperature 18.10.6.6 Toxicity 18.10.6.7 Hydraulic Loading 18.10.6.8 Organic Loading 18.10.7 Activated Sludge ModiÞcations 18.10.7.1 Conventional Activated Sludge 18.10.7.2 Step Aeration 18.10.7.3 Complete Mix 18.10.7.4 Pure Oxygen 18.10.7.5 Contact Stabilization 18.10.7.6 Extended Aeration 18.10.7.7 Oxidation Ditch 18.10.8 Activated Sludge: Process Control Parameters 18.10.8.1 Alkalinity 18.10.8.2 Dissolved Oxygen 18.10.8.3 pH 18.10.8.4 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids, and Mixed Liquor Total Suspended Solids 18.10.8.5 Return Activated Sludge Rate and Concentration 18.10.8.6 Waste Activated Sludge Flow Rate 18.10.8.7 Temperature 18.10.8.8 Sludge Blanket Depth 18.10.9 Operational Control Levels 18.10.9.1 Inßuent Characteristics 18.10.9.2 Industrial Contributions 18.10.9.3 Process Sidestreams 18.10.9.4 Seasonal Variations 18.10.9.5 Control Levels at Start-Up 18.10.10 Operator Observations: Inßuent and Aeration Tank 18.10.10.1 Visual Indicators: Inßuent and Aeration Tank 18.10.10.2 Final Settling Tank (Clariịer) Observations â 2003 by CRC Press LLC 18.10.11 Process Control Testing and Sampling 18.10.11.1 Aeration Inßuent Sampling 18.10.11.2 Aeration Tank 18.10.11.3 Settling Tank Inßuent 18.10.11.4 Settling Tank 18.10.11.5 Settling Tank Efßuent 18.10.11.6 Return Activated Sludge and Waste Activated Sludge 18.10.12 Process Control Adjustments 18.10.13 Troubleshooting Operational Problems 18.10.14 Process Control Calculations 18.10.14.1 Settled Sludge Volume 18.10.14.2 Estimated Return Rate 18.10.14.3 Sludge Volume Index 18.10.14.4 Waste Activated Sludge 18.10.14.5 Food to Microorganism Ratio (F:M Ratio) 18.10.14.6 Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) 18.10.14.7 Mass Balance 18.10.15 Solids Concentration: Secondary ClariÞer 18.10.16 Activated Sludge Process Record Keeping Requirements 18.11 Disinfection of Wastewater 18.11.1 Chlorine Disinfection 18.11.1.1 Chlorination Terminology 18.11.1.2 Wastewater Chlorination: Facts and Process Description 18.11.1.3 Chlorination Equipment 18.11.1.4 Chlorination: Operation 18.11.1.5 Troubleshooting Operational Problems 18.11.1.6 Dechlorination 18.11.1.7 Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety 18.11.1.8 Chlorine: Safe Work Practice 18.11.1.9 Chlorination Process Calculations 18.11.2 UV Irradiation 18.11.3 Ozonation 18.11.4 Bromine Chloride 18.11.5 No Disinfection 18.12 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 18.12.1 Chemical Treatment 18.12.1.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures 18.12.2 Microscreening 18.12.2.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures 18.12.3 Filtration 18.12.3.1 Filtration Process Description 18.12.3.2 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures 18.12.4 Biological NitriÞcation 18.12.4.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures 18.12.5 Biological Denitrifcation 18.12.5.1 Observation, Operation, and Troubleshooting Procedures 18.12.6 Carbon Adsorption 18.12.6.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures 18.12.7 Land Application 18.12.7.1 Types or Modes of Land Application 18.12.8 Biological Nutrient Removal 18.13 Solids (Sludge or Biosolids) Handling 18.13.1 Sludge: Background Information 18.13.1.1 Sources of Sludge 18.13.1.2 Sludge Characteristics © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 18.13.1.3 Sludge Pumping Calculations 18.13.1.4 Sludge Treatment: An Overview 18.13.2 Sludge Thickening 18.13.2.1 Gravity Thickening 18.13.2.2 Flotation Thickening 18.13.2.3 Solids Concentrators 18.13.3 Sludge Stabilization 18.13.3.1 Aerobic Digestion 18.13.3.2 Anaerobic Digestion 18.13.3.3 Other Sludge Stabilization Processes 18.13.4 Sludge Dewatering 18.13.4.1 Sand Drying Beds 18.13.4.2 Rotary Vacuum Filtration 18.13.4.3 Pressure Filtration 18.13.4.4 Centrifugation 18.13.4.5 Sludge Incineration 18.13.4.6 Land Application of Biosolids 18.14 Permits, Records, and Reports 18.14.1 DeÞnitions 18.14.2 NPDES Permits 18.14.2.1 Reporting 18.14.2.2 Sampling and Testing 18.14.2.3 Efßuent Limitations 18.14.2.4 Compliance Schedules 18.14.2.5 Special Conditions 18.14.2.6 Licensed Operator Requirements 18.14.2.7 Chlorination or Dechlorination Reporting 18.14.2.8 Reporting Calculations 18.15 Chapter Review Questions and Problems References Appendix A Answers to Chapter Review Questions and Problems Appendix B Formulae © 2003 by CRC Press LLC PART I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations What is of all things most yielding, Can overcome that which is most hard, Being substanceless, it can enter in even where there is no crevice That is how I know the value of action which is actionless Lao Tzu, 5th Century B.C 1.1 INTRODUCTION Although not often thought of as a commodity (or, for that matter, not thought about at all), water is a commodity — a very valuable commodity In this text, it is our position that with the passage of time, potable water will become even more valuable Moreover, with the passage of even more time, potable water will be even more valuable than we might imagine It may be possibly comparable in pricing, gallon for gallon, to what we pay for gasoline, or even more Earth was originally allotted a finite amount of water — we have no more or no less than that original allotment today It logically follows that, in order to sustain life as we know it, we must everything we can to preserve and protect our water supply We also must purify and reuse the water we presently waste (i.e., wastewater) 1.2 THE PARADIGM SHIFT Historically, the purpose of water supply systems has been to provide pleasant drinking water that is free of disease organisms and toxic substances In addition, the purpose of wastewater treatment has been to protect the health and well being of our communities Water and wastewater treatment operations have accomplished this goal by (1) prevention of disease and nuisance conditions; (2) avoidance of contamination of water supplies and navigable waters; (3) maintenance of clean water for survival of fish, bathing, and recreation; and (4) generally conservation of water quality for future use The purpose of water supply systems and wastewater treatment processes has not changed However, primarily because of new regulations the paradigm has shifted These include: © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Protection against protozoan and virus contamination Implementation of the multiple barrier approach to microbial control New requirements of the Ground Water Disinfection Rule, the Total Coliform Rule and Distribution System, and the Lead and Copper Rule Regulations for trihalomethanes and disinfection by-products (DBPs) We discuss this important shift momentarily but first it is important to abide by Voltaire’s advice: that is, “If you wish to converse with me, please define your terms.” For those not familiar with the term paradigm, it can be defined in the following ways A paradigm is the consensus of the scientific community — “concrete problem solutions that the profession has come to accept.”1 Thomas Kuhn coined the term paradigm He outlined it in terms of the scientific process He felt that “one sense of paradigm, is global, embracing all the shared commitments of a scientific group; the other isolates a particularly important sort of commitment and is thus a subset of the first.”1 The concept of paradigm has two general levels The first is the encompassing whole, the summation of parts It consists of the theories, laws, rules, models, concepts, and definitions that go into a generally accepted fundamental theory of science Such a paradigm is global in character The other level of paradigm is that it can also be just one of these laws, theories, models, etc that combine to formulate a global paradigm These have the property of being local For instance, Galileo’s theory that the earth rotated around the sun became a paradigm in itself, namely a generally accepted law in astronomy Yet, on the other hand, his theory combined with other local paradigms in areas such as religion and politics to transform culture A paradigm can also be defined as a pattern or point of view that determines what is seen as reality We use the latter definition in this text A paradigm shift is defined as a major change in the way things are thought about, especially scientifically Once a problem can no longer be solved in the existing paradigm, new laws and theories emerge and form a new paradigm, overthrowing the old if it is accepted Paradigm shifts are the “occasional, discontinuous, revolutionary changes in tacitly shared points of view and preconceptions.”2 Simply, a paradigm shift represents “a profound change in the thoughts, perceptions, and values that form a particular vision of reality.”3 For our purposes, we use the term paradigm shift to mean a change in the way things are understood and done 1.2.1 A CHANGE IN THE WAY THINGS UNDERSTOOD AND DONE ARE In water supply systems, the historical focus, or traditional approach, has been to control turbidity, iron and manganese, taste and odor, color, and coliforms New regulations provided new focus, and thus a paradigm shift Today the traditional approach is no longer sufficient Providing acceptable water has become more sophisticated and costly In order to meet the requirements of the new paradigm, a systems approach must be employed In the systems approach, all components are interrelated What affects one impacts others The focus has shifted to multiple requirements (i.e., new regulations require the process to be modified or the plant upgraded) To illustrate the paradigm shift in the operation of water supply systems, let us look back on the traditional approach of disinfection Disinfection was used in water to destroy harmful organisms It is still used in water to destroy harmful organisms, but is now only one part of the multiple-barrier approach Moreover, disinfection has traditionally been used to treat for coliforms only Currently, because of the paradigm shift, disinfection now (and in the future) is used against coliforms, Legionella, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and others Another example of the traditional vs current practices is seen in the traditional approach to particulate removal in water to lessen turbidity and improve aesthetics Current practice is still to decrease turbidity to improve aesthetics, but now microbial removal plus disinfection is practical Another significant factor that contributed to the paradigm shift in water supply systems was the introduction of the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) in 1989 SWTR requires water treatment plants to achieve 99.9% (3 log) removal activation/inactivation of Giardia and 99.99% (4 log) removal/inactivation of viruses SWTR applies to all surface waters and ground waters under direct influence 1.3 MULTIPLE-BARRIER CONCEPT On August 6, 1996, during the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Reauthorization signing ceremony, President Bill Clinton stated, “A fundamental promise we must make to our people is that the food they eat and the water they drink are safe.” No rational person could doubt the importance of the promise made in this statement © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Source Protection ↓ Optimization of Treatment Process Trained & Certified Plant Operators ↓ Sound Distribution System Management A Second Dose of Disinfectant ↓ Cross-Connection Control ↓ Continuous Monitoring & Testing FIGURE 1.1 Multiple-barrier approach SDWA, passed in 1974, amended in 1986, and reauthorized in 1996, gives the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to set drinking water standards This document is important for many reasons, but is even more important because it describes how the EPA establishes these standards Drinking water standards are regulations that EPA sets to control the level of contaminants in the nation’s drinking water These standards are part of SDWA’s multiple-barrier approach to drinking water protection (see Figure 1.1) As shown in Figure 1.1, the multiple barrier approach includes the following elements: Assessing and protecting drinking water sources — This means doing everything possible to prevent microbes and other contaminants from entering water supplies Minimizing human and animal activity around our watersheds is one part of this barrier Optimizing treatment processes — This provides a second barrier and usually means filtering and disinfecting the water It also means making sure that the people who are responsible for our water are properly trained and certified and knowledgeable of the public health issues involved Ensuring the integrity of distribution systems — This consists of maintaining the quality of water as it moves through the system on its way to the customer’s tap Effecting correct cross-connection control procedures — This is a critical fourth element in the barrier approach It is critical because the greatest potential hazard in water distribution systems is associated with cross-connections to nonpotable waters There are many connections between potable and nonpotable systems — every drain in a hospital constitutes such a connection, but cross-connections are those through which backflow can occur.4 Continuous monitoring and testing of the water before it reaches the tap — Monitoring water quality is a critical element in the barrier approach It should include having specific procedures to follow should potable water ever fail to meet quality standards With the involvement of EPA, local governments, drinking water utilities, and citizens, these multiple barriers ensure that the tap water in the U.S and territories is safe to drink Simply, in the multiple-barrier concept, we employ a holistic approach to water management that begins at the source and continues with treatment, through disinfection and distribution 1.3.1 MULTIPLE-BARRIER APPROACH: WASTEWATER OPERATIONS Not shown in Figure 1.1 is the fate of the used water What happens to the wastewater produced? Wastewater is treated via the multiple-barrier treatment train, which is the combination of unit processes used in the system The primary mission of the wastewater treatment plant (and the operator/practitioner) is to treat the wastestream to a level of purity acceptable to return it to the environment or for immediate reuse (i.e., reuse in such applications as irrigation of golf courses, etc.) Water and wastewater operators maintain a continuous urban water cycle on a daily basis B.D Jones sums up this point as follows: Delivering services is the primary function of municipal government It occupies the vast bulk of the time and effort of most city employees, is the source of most contacts that citizens have with local governments, occasionally becomes the subject of heated controversy, and is often surrounded by myth and misinformation Yet, service delivery remains the “hidden function” of local government.5 In Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, we focus on sanitary (or environmental) services (excluding solid-waste disposal) — water and wastewater treatment — because they have been and remain indispensable for the functioning and growth of cities Next to air, water is the most important life-sustaining product on earth Yet it is its service delivery (and all that it entails) that remains a “hidden function” of local government.5 This hidden function is what this text is all about We present our discussion in a completely new and unique dual manner — in what we call the new paradigm shift in water management and in the concept of the multiple barrier approach Essentially, the Handbook takes the © 2003 by CRC Press LLC hidden part out of services delivered by water and wastewater professionals Water service professionals provide water for typical urban domestic and commercial uses, eliminate wastes, protect the public health and safety, and help control many forms of pollution Wastewater service professionals treat the urban wastestream to remove pollutants before discharging the effluent into the environment Water and wastewater treatment services are the urban circulatory system.6 In addition, like the human circulatory system, the urban circulatory system is less than effective if flow is not maintained Maintaining flow is what water and wastewater operations is all about This seems easy enough; water has been flowing literally for eons However, this is not to say that water and wastewater operations are not without problems and/or challenges The dawn of the 21st century brought with it, for many of us, aspirations of good things ahead in the constant struggle to provide quality food and water for humanity However, the only way in which we can hope to accomplish this is to stay on the cutting edge of technology and to face all challenges head on Some of these other challenges are addressed in the following sections 1.4 MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS FACING WATER AND WASTEWATER OPERATIONS Problems come and go, shifting from century to century, decade to decade, year to year, and site to site They range from the problems caused by natural forces (storms, earthquakes, fires, floods, and droughts) to those caused by social forces, currently including terrorism In general, five areas are of concern to many water and wastewater management personnel Complying with regulations and coping with new and changing regulations Maintaining infrastructure Privatization and/or reengineering Benchmarking Upgrading security 1.4.1 COMPLIANCE WITH NEW, CHANGING, AND EXISTING REGULATIONS7 Adapting the workforce to the challenges of meeting changing regulations and standards for both water and wastewater treatment is a major concern As mentioned, drinking water standards are regulations that EPA sets to control the level of contaminants in the nation’s drinking water Again, these standards are part of SDWA’s multiplebarrier approach to drinking water protection There are two categories of drinking water standards: 1.4.2 MAINTAINING INFRASTRUCTURE A National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (primary standard) — This is a legally enforceable standard that applies to public water systems Primary standards protect drinking water quality by limiting the levels of specific contaminants that can adversely affect public health and are known or anticipated to occur in water They take the form of Maximum Contaminant Levels or Treatment Techniques A National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation (secondary standard) — This is a nonenforceable guideline regarding contaminants that may cause cosmetic effects (e.g., skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects (e.g., taste, odor, or color) in drinking water USEPA recommends secondary standards to water systems, but does not require systems to comply However, states may choose to adopt them as enforceable standards This information focuses on national primary standards During the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S government encouraged the prevention of pollution by providing funds for the construction of municipal wastewater treatment plants, water-pollution research, and technical training and assistance New processes were developed to treat sewage, analyze wastewater, and evaluate the effects of pollution on the environment In spite of these efforts, expanding population and industrial and economic growth caused the pollution and health difficulties to increase In response to the need to make a coordinated effort to protect the environment, the National Environmental Policy Act was signed into law on January 1, 1970 In December of that year, a new independent body — EPA — was created to bring under one roof all of the pollutioncontrol programs related to air, water, and solid wastes In 1972, the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments expanded the role of the federal government in water pollution control and significantly increased federal funding for construction of wastewater treatment plants Many of the wastewater treatment plants in operation today are the result of federal grants made over the years For example, because of the 1977 Clean Water Act Amendment to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 and the 1987 Clean Water Act Reauthorization Bill, funding for wastewater treatment plants was provided Many large sanitation districts, with their multiple plant operations, and an even larger number of single plant operations in smaller communities in operation today are a result of these early environmental laws Because of these laws, the federal government provided grants of several hundred million dollars to finance construction of wastewater treatment facilities throughout the country Many of these locally or federally funded treatment plants are aging; based on our experience, we rate some as dinosaurs The point is many facilities are facing problems caused by aging equipment, facilities, and infrastructure Complicating the problems associated with natural aging is the increasing pressure on inadequate older systems to meet demands of increased population and urban growth Facilities built in the 1960s and 1970s are now 30 to 40 years old; not only are they showing signs of wear and tear, but they simply were not designed to handle the level of growth that has occurred in many municipalities Regulations often necessitate a need to upgrade By matching funds or providing federal money to cover some of the costs, municipalities can take advantage of a window of opportunity to improve their facility at a lower direct cost to the community Those federal dollars, of course, come with strings attached; they are to be spent on specific projects in specific areas On the other hand, many times new regulatory requirements are put in place without the financial assistance needed to implement When this occurs, either the local community ignores the Drinking water standards apply to public water systems that provide water for human consumption through at least 15 service connections or regularly serve at least 25 individuals Public water systems include municipal water companies, homeowner associations, schools, businesses, campgrounds and shopping malls More recent requirements, including the Clean Water Act Amendments that went into effect in February 2001, require water treatment plants to meet tougher standards They have presented new problems for treatment facilities to deal with and have offered some possible solutions to the problems of meeting the new standards These regulations provide for communities to upgrade existing treatment systems, replacing aging and outdated infrastructure with new process systems Their purpose is to ensure that facilities are able to filter out higher levels of impurities from drinking water, reducing the health risk from bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, and that they are able to decrease levels of turbidity and reduce concentrations of chlorine by-products in drinking water In regards to wastewater collection and treatment, the National Pollution Discharge Elimination System program established by the Clean Water Act, issues permits that control wastewater treatment plant discharges Meeting permit is always a concern for wastewater treatment managers because the effluent discharged into water bodies affects those downstream of the release point Individual point source dischargers must use the best available technology to control the levels of pollution in the effluent they discharge into streams As systems age, and best available technology changes, meeting permit with existing equipment and unit processes becomes increasingly difficult © 2003 by CRC Press LLC new requirements (until caught and forced to comply) or they face the situation and implement through local tax hikes to pay the cost of compliance An example of how a change in regulations can force the issue is demonstrated by the demands made by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and EPA in their Process Safety Management (PSM)/Risk Management Planning (RMP) regulations These regulations put the use of elemental chlorine (and other listed hazardous materials) under scrutiny Moreover, because of these regulations, plant managers throughout the country are forced to choose which side of a double-edged sword cuts their way the most One edge calls for full compliance with the regulations (analogous to stuffing the regulation through the eye of a needle) The other edge calls for substitution This means replacing elemental chlorine with a nonlisted hazardous chemical (e.g., hypochlorite) or a physical (ultraviolet irradiation) disinfectant — a very costly undertaking either way Note: Many of us who have worked in water and wastewater treatment for years characterize PSM and RMP as the elemental chlorine killer You have probably heard the old saying: “If you can’t away with something in one way, then regulate it to death.” Note: Changes resulting because of regulatory pressure sometimes mean replacing or changing existing equipment, increased chemical costs (e.g., substituting hypochlorite for chlorine typically increases costs threefold), and could easily involve increased energy and personnel costs Equipment condition, new technology, and financial concerns are all considerations when upgrades or new processes are chosen In addition, the safety of the process must be considered because of the demands made by EPA and OSHA The potential of harm to workers, the community, and the environment are all under study, as are the possible long-term effects of chlorination on the human population 1.4.3 PRIVATIZING AND/OR REENGINEERING8 As mentioned, water and wastewater treatment operations are undergoing a new paradigm shift We explained that this paradigm shift focused on the holistic approach to treating water The shift is, however, more inclusive It also includes thinking outside the box In order to remain efficient and therefore competitive in the real world of operations, water and wastewater facilities have either bought into the new paradigm shift, or been forcibly “shifted” to doing other things (often these other things have little to with water and wastewater operations) © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Our experience has shown that few words conjure up more fear among municipal plant managers than privatization or reengineering Privatization means allowing private enterprise to compete with government in providing public services, such as water and wastewater operations Existing management, on the other hand, can accomplish reengineering internally or it can be used (and usually is) during the privatization process Reengineering is the systematic transformation of an existing system into a new form to realize quality improvements in operation, system capability, functionality, performance, or evolvability at a lower cost, schedule, or risk to the customer Many on-site managers consider privatization and/or reengineering schemes threatening In the worse case scenario, a private contractor could bid the entire staff out of their jobs In the best case, privatization and/or re-engineering is often a very real threat that forces on-site managers into workforce cuts, improving efficiency and cutting costs (At the same time, on-site managers work to ensure the community receives safe drinking water and the facility meets standards and permits This is done with fewer workers and without injury or accident to workers, the facility, or the environment.) There are a number of reasons causing local officials to take a hard look at privatization and/or re-engineering Decaying infrastructures — Many water and wastewater operations include water and wastewater infrastructures that date back to the early 1900s The most recent systems were built with federal funds during the 1970s, and even these now need upgrading or replacing The EPA recently estimated that the nation’s 75,000+ drinking water systems alone would require more than $100 billion in investments over the next 20 years Wastewater systems will require a similar level of investment Mandates — The federal government has reduced its contributions to local water and wastewater systems over the past 30 years, while at the same time imposing stricter water quality and effluent standards under the Clean Water Act and SDWA Moreover, as previously mentioned, new unfunded mandated safety regulations, such as OSHA’s PSM and EPA’s RMP, are expensive to implement using local sources of revenues or state revolving loan funds Hidden function — Earlier we stated that much of the work of water and wastewater treatment is a hidden function Because of this lack of visibility, it is often difficult for local officials to commit to making the necessary investments in community water and wastewater systems Simply, the local politicians lack the political will — water pipes and interceptors are not Start → Plan →Research →Observe → Analyze → Adapt FIGURE 1.2 Benchmarking process visible and not perceived as immediately critical for adequate funding It is easier for elected officials to ignore them in favor of expenditures of more visible services, such as police and fire Additionally, raising water and sewage rates to cover operations and maintenance is not always effected because it is an unpopular move for elected officials This means that water and sewer rates not adequately cover the actual cost of providing services in many municipalities performance vs best-in-class operations, and using the analysis to meet and exceed the best in class What benchmarking is: In many locations throughout the U.S., expenditures on water and wastewater services are the largest facing local governments today (This is certainly the case for those municipalities struggling to implement the latest storm water requirements) Thus, this area presents a great opportunity for cost savings Through privatization, water and wastewater companies can take advantage of advanced technology, more flexible management practices, and streamlined procurement and construction practices to lower costs and make the critical improvements more quickly Benchmarking vs best practices gives water and wastewater operations a way to evaluate their operations overall a How effective b How cost effective Benchmarking shows plants both how well their operations stack up, and how well those operations are implemented Benchmarking is an objective-setting process Benchmarking is a new way of doing business Benchmarking forces an external view to ensure correctness of objective-setting Benchmarking forces internal alignment to achieve plant goals Benchmarking promotes teamwork by directing attention to those practices necessary to remain competitive 1.4.4 BENCHMARKING Potential results of benchmarking: Primarily out of self-preservation (to retain their lucrative positions), many utility directors work against the trend to privatize water, wastewater, and other public operations Usually the real work to prevent privatization is delegated to the individual managers in charge of each specific operation Moreover, it can be easily seen that working against privatization by these local managers is also in their own self-interest and in the interest of their workers; their jobs may be at stake The question is, of course, how does one go about preventing his water and wastewater operation from being privatized? The answer is rather straightforward and clear: Efficiency must be improved at reduced cost In the real world, this is easier said than done, but is not impossible For example, for those facilities under Total Quality Management (TQM), the process can be much easier The advantage TQM offers the plant manager is the variety of tools to help plan, develop, and implement water and wastewater efficiency measures These tools include self-assessments, statistical process control, International Organization for Standards 9000 and 14000, process analysis, quality circle, and benchmarking (see Figure 1.2) Our focus in this text is on use of the benchmarking tool to improve water and wastewater operation’s efficiency Benchmarking is a process for rigorously measuring your Benchmarking may indicate direction of required change rather than specific metrics a Costs must be reduced b Customer satisfaction must be increased c Return on assets must be increased d Improved maintenance e Improved operational practices Best practices are translated into operational units of measure © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Targets: Consideration of available resources converts benchmark findings to targets A target represents what can realistically be accomplished in a given timeframe A target can show progress toward benchmark practices and metrics Quantification of precise targets should be based on achieving benchmark Note: Benchmarking can be performance based, process based, or strategy based and can compare financial or operational performance measures, methods or practices, or strategic choices 1.4.4.1 Benchmarking: The Process When forming a benchmarking team, the goal should be to provide a benchmark that evaluates and compares privatized and reengineered water and wastewater treatment operations to your operation This helps your operation to be more efficient, remain competitive, and make continual improvements It is important to point out that benchmarking is more than simply setting a performance reference or comparison; it is a way to facilitate learning for continual improvements The key to the learning process is looking outside one’s own plant to other plants that have discovered better ways of achieving improved performance 1.4.4.1.1 Benchmarking Steps As shown in Figure 1.2, the benchmarking process consists of five steps Planning — Managers must select a process (or processes) to be benchmarked A benchmarking team should be formed The process of benchmarking must be thoroughly understood and documented The performance measure for the process should be established (i.e., cost, time, and quality) Research — Information on the best-in-class performer must be determined through research The information can be derived from the industry’s network, industry experts, industry and trade associations, publications, public information, and other award-winning operations Observation — The observation step is a study of the benchmarking subject’s performance level, processes, and practices that have achieved those levels, and other enabling factors Analysis — In this phase, comparisons in performance levels among facilities are determined The root causes for the performance gaps are studied To make accurate and appropriate comparisons, the comparison data must be sorted, controlled for quality, and normalized Adaptation — This phase is putting what is learned throughout the benchmarking process into action The findings of the benchmarking study must be communicated to gain acceptance, functional goals must be established, and a plan must be developed Progress should be monitored and, as required, corrections in the process made Note: Benchmarking should be interactive It should also recalibrate performance measures and improve the process © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 1.4.4.1.2 Benchmarking: An Example To gain better understanding of the benchmarking process, we have provided the following limited example It is in outline and summary form only — discussion of a fullblown study is beyond the scope of this text (Although the details described below come from a real study, we have provided a fictitious name for the sanitation district.) Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District Introduction In January 1997, Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District formed a benchmarking team with the goal of providing a benchmark that evaluates and compares privatized and re-engineered wastewater treatment operations to Rachel’s Creek operations in order to be more efficient and remain competitive After three months of evaluating wastewater facilities using the benchmarking tool, our benchmarking is complete This report summarizes our findings and should serve as a benchmark by which to compare and evaluate Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District operations Facilities 41 wastewater treatment plants throughout the U.S The benchmarking team focused on the following target areas for comparison: Reengineering Organization Operations and maintenance a Contractual services b Materials and supplies c Sampling and data collection d Maintenance Operational directives Utilities Chemicals Technology Permits a Water quality b Solids quality c Air quality d Odor quality Safety 10 Training and development 11 Process 12 Communication 13 Public relations 14 Reuse 15 Support services a Pretreatment b Collection systems c Procurement d Finance and administration e Laboratory f Human resources Summary of Findings: Our overall evaluation of Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District as compared to our benchmarking targets is a good one; that is, we are in good standing as compared to the 41 target facilities we benchmarked with In the area of safety, we compare quite favorably Only plant 34, with its own full time safety manager, appeared to be better than we are We were very competitive with the privatized plants in our usage of chemicals and far ahead of many public plants We were also competitive in the use of power Our survey of what other plants are doing to cut power costs showed that we clearly identified those areas of improvement and our current effort to further reduce power costs is on track We were far ahead in the optimization of our unit processes and we were leaders in the area of odor control There were also areas that we need to improve To the Rachel’s Creek employee, reengineering applies to only the treatment department and has been limited to cutting staff while plant practices and organizational practices are outdated and inefficient Under the reengineering section of this report, we have provided a summary of reengineering efforts at the reengineered plants visited The experiences of these plants can be used to improve our own reengineering effort Next is our organization and staffing levels A private company could reduce the entire treatment department staff by about 18 to 24% The 18 to 24% are based on number of employees and not costs In the organization section of this report, organizational models and their staffing levels are provided as guidelines to improving our organization and determining optimum staffing levels The last big area that we need to improve is in the way we accomplish the work we perform Our people are not used efficiently because of outdated and inefficient policies and work practices Methods to improve the way we work are found throughout this report We noted that efficient work practices used by private companies allow plants to operate with small staffs Overall, Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District treatment plants are much better than other public plants Although some plants may have better equipment, better technology, and cleaner effluents, the costs in labor and materials is much higher than ours Several of the public plants were in bad condition Contrary to popular belief, the privately operated plants had good to excellent operations These plants met permit, complied with safety regulations, maintained plant © 2003 by CRC Press LLC equipment, and kept the plant clean Due to their efficiency and low staff, we felt that most of the privately operated plants were better than ours We agreed this needs to be changed Using what we learned during our benchmarking effort, we can be just as efficient as a privately operated plant and still maintain our standards of quality 1.4.5 The Bottom Line on Privatization Privatization is becoming of greater and greater concern Governance boards see privatization as a potential way to shift liability and responsibility from the municipality’s shoulders, with the attractive bonus of cutting costs Both water and wastewater facilities face constant pressure to work more efficiently and more cost-effectively with fewer workers to produce a higher quality product; all functions must be value-added Privatization is increasing, and many municipalities are seriously considering outsourcing part or all of their operations to contractors 1.5 UPGRADING SECURITY You may say Homeland Security is a Y2K problem that doesn’t end January of any given year Governor Tom Ridge9 One consequence of the events of September 11 was EPA’s directive to establish a Water Protection Task Force to ensure that activities to protect and secure water supply/wastewater treatment infrastructure are comprehensive and carried out expeditiously Another consequence is a heightened concern among citizens in the U.S over the security of their critical water and wastewater infrastructure The nation’s water and wastewater infrastructure consisting of several thousand publicly owned water and wastewater treatment plants, more than 100,000 pumping stations, hundreds of thousands of miles of water distribution and sanitary sewers, and another 200,000 miles of storm sewers is one of America’s most valuable resources, with treatment and distribution/collection systems valued at more than $2.5 trillion Wastewater treatment operations taken alone include the sanitary and storm sewers, forming an extensive network that runs near or beneath key buildings and roads, and is contiguous to many communication and transportation networks Significant damage to the nation’s wastewater facilities or collection systems would result in loss of life; catastrophic environmental damage to rivers, lakes, and wetlands; contamination of drinking water supplies; long-term public health impacts; destruction of fish and shellfish production; and disruption of commerce, the economy, and our normal way of life Governor Tom Ridge points out the security role for the public professional (we interpret this to include water and wastewater professionals): Americans should find comfort in knowing that millions of their fellow citizens are working every day to ensure our security at every level — federal, state, county, municipal These are dedicated professionals who are good at what they I’ve seen it up close, as Governor of Pennsylvania … but there may be gaps in the system The job of the Office of Homeland Security will be to identify those gaps and work to close them.10 It is to shore up the gaps in the system that has driven many water and wastewater facilities to increase security In its “Water Protection Task Force Alert #IV: What Wastewater Utilities Can Do Now to Guard Against Terrorist and Security Threats,”11 EPA made several recommendations to increase security and reduce threats from terrorism The recommendations include: Guarding against unplanned physical intrusion (water and wastewater) a Lock all doors and set alarms at your office, pumping stations, treatment plants, and vaults, and make it a rule that doors are locked and alarms are set b Limit access to facilities and control access to pumping stations, chemical and fuel storage areas, giving close scrutiny to visitors and contractors c Post guards at treatment plants, and post “employee only” signs in restricted areas d Control access to storm sewers e Secure hatches, metering vaults, manholes, and other access points to the sanitary collection system f Increase lighting in parking lots, treatment bays, and other areas with limited staffing g Control access to computer networks and control systems, and change the passwords frequently h Do not leave keys in equipment or vehicles at any time Making security a priority for employees a Conduct background security checks on employees at hiring and periodically thereafter b Develop a security program with written plans and train employees frequently c Ensure all employees are aware of communications protocols with relevant law enforce- © 2003 by CRC Press LLC ment, public health, environmental protection, and emergency response organizations d Ensure that employees are fully aware of the importance of vigilance and the seriousness of breaches in security, and make note of unaccompanied strangers on the site and immediately notify designated security officers or local law enforcement agencies e Consider varying the timing of operational procedures if possible in case someone is watching the pattern changes f Upon the dismissal of an employee, change passcodes and make sure keys and access cards are returned g Provide customer service staff with training and checklists of how to handle a threat if it is called in Coordinating actions for effective emergency response a Review existing emergency response plans, and ensure they are current and relevant b Make sure employees have necessary training in emergency operating procedures c Develop clear protocols and chains-of-command for reporting and responding to threats along with relevant emergency, law enforcement, environmental, public health officials, consumers, and the media Practice the emergency protocols regularly d Ensure key utility personnel (both on and off duty) have access to crucial telephone numbers and contact information at all times Keep the call list up to date e Develop close relationships with local law enforcement agencies, and make sure they know where critical assets are located Request they add your facilities to their routine rounds f Work with local industries to ensure that their pretreatment facilities are secure g Report to county or state health officials any illness among the employees that might be associated with wastewater contamination h Report criminal threats, suspicious behavior, or attacks on wastewater utilities immediately to law enforcement officials and the relevant field office of the Federal Bureau of Investigation Investing in security and infrastructure improvements a Assess the vulnerability of collection/distribution system, major pumping stations, water and wastewater treatment plants, b c d e f chemical and fuel storage areas, outfall pipes, and other key infrastructure elements Assess the vulnerability of the storm water collection system Determine where large pipes run near or beneath government buildings, banks, commercial districts, industrial facilities, or are contiguous with major communication and transportation networks Move as quickly as possible with the most obvious and cost-effective physical improvements, such as perimeter fences, security lighting, tamper-proofing manhole covers and valve boxes, etc Improve computer system and remote operational security Use local citizen watches Seek financing for more expensive and comprehensive system improvements 1.5.1 THE BOTTOM LINE ON SECURITY Again, when it comes to the security of our nation and even of water and wastewater treatment facilities, few have summed it better than Governor Ridge: Now, obviously, the further removed we get from September 11, I think the natural tendency is to let down our guard Unfortunately, we cannot that The government will continue to everything we can to find and stop those who seek to harm us And I believe we owe it to the American people to remind them that they must be vigilant, as well.10 able, introduction of techniques to make more water available through watershed management, cloud seeding, desalination of saline or brackish water, or area-wide educational programs to teach conservation or reuse of water.12 Many of the management techniques employed in water treatment operations are also employed in wastewater treatment In addition, wastewater treatment operations employ management techniques that may include upgrading present systems for nutrient removal, reuse of process residuals in an earth-friendly manner, and area-wide educational programs to teach proper domestic and industrial waste disposal practices Whether managing a waterworks or wastewater treatment plant, the manager, in regards to expertise, must be a well-rounded, highly skilled individual No one questions the need for incorporation of these highly-trained practitioners — well-versed in the disciplines of sanitary engineering, biology, chemistry, hydrology, environmental science, safety principles, accountants, auditors, technical aspects, and operations — in both professions Based on personal experience, however, engineers, biologists, chemists, and others with no formal management training are often hindered (limited) in their ability to solve the complex management problems currently facing both industries There are those who will view this opinion with some disdain However, in the current environment where privatization, the need for upgrading security, and other pressing concerns are present, skilled management professionals are needed to manage and mitigate these problems 1.6 TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT VS PROFESSIONAL MANAGEMENT 1.7 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS Water treatment operations management is management that is directed toward providing water of the right quality, in the right quantity, at the right place, at the right time, and at the right price to meet various demands Wastewater treatment management is directed toward providing treatment of incoming raw influent (no matter what the quantity), at the right time, to meet regulatory requirements, and at the right price to meet various requirements The techniques of management are manifold both in water resource management and wastewater treatment operations In water treatment operations, for example, management techniques may include: Storage to detain surplus water available at one time of the year for use later, transportation facilities to move water from one place to another, manipulation of the pricing structure for water to reduce demand, use of changes in legal systems to make better use of the supplies avail- Answers to chapter review questions are found in Appendix A © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 1.1 Define paradigm as used in this text 1.2 Define paradigm shift as used in this text 1.3 List five elements of the multiple-barrier approach 1.4 Explain the following: Water service delivery remains one of the hidden functions of local government 1.5 Fill in the blank: drinking water standards are not enforceable 1.6 Explain the difference between privatization and reengineering 1.7 Define benchmarking 1.8 List the five benchmarking steps REFERENCES Holyningen-Huene, P., Reconstructing Scientific Revolutions, University Chicago Press, 1993, p 134 Daly, H.E., Economics: Introduction to the steady-state economy, in Ecology, Ethics: Essays Toward a Steady State Economy, W.H Freeman & Company, San Francisco, 1980, p.1 Capra, F., Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising Culture, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1982, p 30 Angele, F.J., Sr., Cross Connections and Backflow Protection, 2nd ed., American Water Association, Denver, 1974 Jones, B.D., Service Delivery in the City: Citizen Demand and Bureaucratic Rules, New York: Longman, New York, 1980, p A national movement for cleaner cities, Am J Public Health, 20, 296–97, 1930; Cox, G.W., Sanitary services of municipalities, Texas Municipalities, 26, 1939, 218 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC This section adapted from Drinan, J.E., Water & Wastewater Treatment: A Guide for the Nonengineering Professional, Technomic Publ., Lancaster, PA, 2001, pp 2–3 Adapted from Johnson, R and Moore, A., Policy Brief 17: Opening the floodgates: why water privatization will continue, Reason Public Inst., January 2002, pp 1–3, [www.rppi.org/pbrief17.html] Accessed May 14, 2002 Henry, K., New face of security Gov Security, Apr 2002, pp 30–37 10 Henry, K., New face of security Gov Security, Apr 2002, p 33 11 U.S Environmental Protection Agency, Water Protection Task Force Alert #IV: What Wastewater Utilites Can Do Now to Guard Against Terrorist and Security Threats, Washington, D.C., Oct 24, 2001 12 Mather, J.R., Water Resources: Distribution, Use, and Management, John Wiley & Sons, New York: 1984, p 384 ... 11 .11 .1 Pathogenic Protozoa 11 .11 .1. 1 Giardia 11 .11 .1. 2 Cryptosporidium 11 .11 .1. 3 Cyclospora 11 .11 .2 Helminths 11 .12 Biological Aspects and Processes (Wastewater) 11 .12 .1 Aerobic Process 11 .12 .2... Chlorination 17 .10 .11 .10 Measuring Chlorine Residual 17 .10 .11 .11 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection EfÞcacy 17 .10 .11 .12 Disinfection By-Products 17 .10 .11 .13 Operational Considerations 17 .10 .11 .14 Advantages... Practices 17 .10 .10 Summary of Methods of Disinfection 17 .10 .11 Chlorination 17 .10 .11 .1 Chlorine Terms 17 .10 .11 .2 Chlorine Chemistry 17 .10 .11 .3 Breakpoint Chlorination © 2003 by CRC Press LLC 17 .10 .11 .4