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Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 29
Error Analysis of the Written English Essays of Pakistani
Undergraduate Students: A Case Study
Summaira Sarfraz, Assistant Professor,
Email sumaira.sarfraz@nu.edu.pk
Department of Sciences and Humanities
FAST-National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences Lahore Campus, Pakistan
Abstract
The study aims to examine the errors in a
corpus of 50 English essays written by 50
participants (undergraduate Pakistani
students). These participants are non native
speakers of English language and hail from
Intermediate background with weak English
writing skills. The instrument used for the
study is students‟ written essays in English
language. I followed Rod Ellis‟s (1994)
procedural analysis of errors; collection of
sample of learner language, identification of
errors, description of errors, explanation of
errors, and evaluation of errors in analyzing
50 English essays. The occurrences of two
types of errors; Interlanguage errors and
mother tongue (MT) interference errors have
been compared and the results show that the
percentage of the occurrences of
Interlanguage errors is higher than those of
errors resulting from the interference of
mother tongue (MT). The study has
provided an insight into language learning
problems which occur when L2 learners
internalize the rules of target language (TL)
in its production at a particular point
resulting into errors in an unknown and a
more natural way. These errors serve as a
useful guide for English teachers to design
an effective curriculum for teaching and
learning of English as a second language.
Keywords: Non-native English speakers‟
essays, Rod Ellis‟s procedural analysis of
errors, inter-language, target language,
mother tongue, learning and teaching
curriculum.
1. Introduction
There is no known research conducted on
the error analysis of English writing of
Pakistani undergraduate students. This area
holds significant importance to English
language teachers for providing students‟
learning feedback along with the learning
complexities that manifest the
developmental process of L2. Therefore, the
study examines the common errors that
students commit in their English writing.
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 30
Writing is a highly complex task and writing
in second language makes the task further
complicated as it requires sufficient
command over the second language to fulfill
all the formalities; composing, developing
logical ideas, which are essential for a
written text to be comprehensible. While
writing, a writer engages into the cognitive
process of formulating ideas in MT and then
translating them into TL.
The current curriculum of English courses
being taught at Pakistani schools and
colleges are inadequate to equip students
with the proficiency to write
comprehensible, error free English language
texts. Students writing in a second language
are also faced with challenges related to
second language acquisition such as
language proficiency in TL and competence
which underlies the ability to write in the
L2.
The English text books which are followed
at our schools and colleges are mostly
literature based and lack activities which can
develop the linguistic competence of L2
learners. Since occurring of errors is a
natural phenomenon which can occur in
even L1 production, but it is more easily
corrected by L1 user as he/she can quickly
identify it as an error and knows its
correction. Unlike L1 situation of error
correction, L2 learner needs an effective
feedback about his/her errors along with the
appropriate remedial process to correct the
errors and monitor the recurring process as a
conscious process to minimize errors.
English carries the status of L2 in our
schools and colleges. Despite having spent
14-16 years in these education institutions,
the level of English language proficiency of
our students is far from satisfactory. The
teaching emphasis of English courses in
these institutions is more on imparting
literature based knowledge, and that also of
a literature of L2, rather developing four
basic skills namely listening, speaking,
reading and writing, therefore, the standard
of English among Pakistani students of these
institutions is on the decline.
The students being weak in English,
especially in their writing skills, commit
multiple errors as they have been
inadequately exposed to learning of L2.
Committing errors is a reflection of a
cognitive activity of a learner and tells us a
great deal about the internalize process of
language production. Therefore, error
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 31
analysis has given a positive dimension to
examine errors, as
“all language learning is based on continual
exposure, hypothesizing and, even with the
correct hypothesis, testing and reinforcing
the ideas behind them” (Bartholomae, 1980:
97)[8].
2. Literature Review
Error Analysis(EA) is one of the most
influential theories of second language
acquisition (SLA) which replaced the
Contrastive Analysis(CA) theory, whose
major concern was “the comparison of two
or more languages or subsystems of
languages in order to determine both the
differences and similarities between them”
(Fisiak, 1981, p. 1) in 1970. CA regarded the
influence of mother tongue (MT) on all the
levels language; phonological,
morphological, lexical and syntactic, in
second language acquisition. Due to the
weaknesses of CA in its pedagogical
implications, EA emerged as a more
effective tool for in the study of second
language acquisition. According to James,
EA is “the study of linguistic ignorance, the
investigation of what people do not know
and how they attempt to cope with their
ignorance” (James, 2001, p. 62) [14].
The advocates of EA considered it important
to draw a distinction between mistake and
error, which are “technically two very
different phenomena” (Brown, 1994, p.
205). Corder (1967) [7] took notion of
Chomsky‟s “competence versus
performance” distinction relating errors to
failures in competence and mistakes to
failures in performance. According to this
notion a mistake occurs not because of lack
of competence but because of processing
limitations which indicates learner‟s
inability in utilizing knowledge of TL. An
error results an infringement of the rules of
TL language and hence experience deviation
in grammaticality of TL. Errors arise
because of lack of competence. Native
speaker can recognize and correct mistakes,
but l2 learner need the linguistic competency
in TL to identify errors and correct them
accordingly.
Error analysis focuses on the errors learners
make by drawing a comparison between the
errors made in (TL) and that TL itself. Pit
Corder in his article, “The significance of
Learner Errors” (1967) [17] has given Error
Analysis a new dimension by answering to
the question of L1 and L2 acquisition
process being the same or not.
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 32
Corder‟s Proposal:
“The same process is used for L1 and L2
acquisition:
Humans are born with an innate
predisposition to acquire language
If we don‟t use the mechanism by
puberty (Lenneberg), we lose the
ability
If we do use the mechanism for L1
acquisition, it will be available for
L2 acquisition
Main difference is one of motivation
“I propose therefore as a working
hypothesis that some at least of the
strategies adopted by the learner of a
second language are substantially the
same as those by which a first
language is acquired. Such a
proposal does not imply that the
course or sequence of learning is the
same in both cases.” (p.166)
Being exposed to TL, L2 learners get into a
gradual process of trial and error in
achieving the native like command over TL.
In this process a learner gets into a language
system which is independent of both MT
and TL. Corder (1967) introduced the notion
of Interlanguage (IL) which refers to the
intermediate state of language learning as
having a third language system based on its
own unique grammar; lexicon morphology,
syntax and so on. According to
Interlanguage theory the intermediate
learning state is a platform where a learner
integrates the new knowledge (TL)
systematically with the previous knowledge
(MT) and restructure and reorganize the 2.
Researchers have been suggesting
alternative terms while referring to IL.
Corder (1971) suggested the notions of
“idiosyncratic dialects” (also see Ellis, 1985,
p. 47 [10]; Brown, 1994, pp. 203-204;
Freeman & Long, 1994, pp. 60-61) to
determine if the language of a learner is
eccentric and “transitional competence” to
ascertain the dynamic nature of the
developing system of the learners. (Selinker,
1972) [24] Considered IL as an adaptive
strategy which uses simplification,
reduction, overgeneralization, transfer,
formulaic language, omissions, substitutions
and restructurings. Learners follow these
procedures which Corder (1967) called the
learner‟s “built-in syllabus” (i.e. the
interlanguage continuum) as they move
from their MT to TL to achieve the required
level of proficiency in TL. Nemser (1971)
[19] gave the notion of “approximative
system”, through which learner moves in the
acquisition of TL.
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 33
In 1972, Selinker (in Richards, 1974, p. 37)
[24] put forward the following five sources
of errors:
1. Language transfer
2. Transfer of training
3. Strategies of second language
learning
4. Strategies of second language
communication, and
5. Overgeneralization of TL
linguistic material.
Researchers have been attaching a great
importance to the social and cognitive
factors in the studies of sources of errors.
Investigating social factors provide evidence
as to why some learners have better writing
ability than the others and vise versa. This
puts emphasis on the motivational aspect on
language learning. The goals, attitude and
motivation can why some learners prefer
practice in their oral skills more than
developing writing skills.
“Gardner‟s (1985) [11] socio-educational
model is designed to account for the role of
social factors in language acquisition. It
interrelates four aspects of L2 learning: the
social and cultural milieu (which determines
beliefs about language and culture),
individual learner differences (related to
motivation and language aptitude), the
setting (formal and/or informal learning
contexts), and learning outcomes.” (Myles,
2002) The model emphasized that the
motivational factors “probably do not make
much difference on their own, but they can
create a more positive context in which
language learning is likely to flourish"
(Bialystok & Hakuta, 1994, p. 140).
Information processing, in language
acquisition, is essentially a cognitive
activity. Perceiving, input of new
information, formulating, reorganizing, all
become a part of information processing.
One of the important cognitive factors in
second language acquisition is language
transfer.
Myles in her article “Second Language
Writing and Research: The Writing Process
and Error Analysis in Student Texts” gave
the following views of different researchers
on the Language Transfer:
“Transfer is defined as the influence
resulting from similarities and differences
between the target language and any other
language that has been previously acquired
(Odlin, 1989).
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 34
“The study of transfer involves the study of
errors (negative transfer), facilitation
(positive transfer), avoidance of target
language forms, and their over-use (Ellis,
1994).”
“Behaviorist accounts claim that transfer is
the cause of errors, whereas from a cognitive
perspective, transfer is seen as a resource
that the learner actively draws upon in
interlanguage development (Selinker,
1972).” [3]
“In other words, "the L1 can have a direct
effect on interlanguage development by
influencing the hypotheses that learners
construct" (Ellis, 1994, p. 342).
“According to McLaughlin, transfer errors
can occur because:
[L]earners lack the necessary
information in the second language
or the attentional capacity to activate
the appropriate second-language
routine. But such an account says
little about why certain linguistic
forms transfer and others do not.
(1988, p. 50).”
Efforts are being made by non native
English language teachers to study the
patterns in the writing errors of non native
speakers of English language to investigate
the learning problems so to design an
effective teaching material. Darus and
Subramaniam (2009) in “Error Analysis of
the Written English Essays of Secondary
School Students in Malaysia: A Case
Study,” made an attempt to “identify,
describe, categorize, and diagnose the errors
in English essay writing of the Arabic
speaking Brevet students,” and concluded
that “only one-third of the second language
learner‟s errors can be attributed to NL
language transfer, this is what this study
came up with. Most of the errors are caused
by an over application of L2. We do need to
incite our students to speak English at home
and with their friends in order to reduce the
number of mistakes due to Negative L1
transfer, but we also need to try to teach
more effectively the rules and conventions
of writing.”
3. Methodology
The procedural analysis of Ellis (1994) of
Error Analysis is followed in the study. The
procedure has the following steps:
1. Collection of sample of learner
language: Written sample essays
2. Identification of errors: Actual
3. Description of errors
4. Evaluation of errors.
3.1. Participants
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 35
The participants of the study are the 50
undergraduate students of FAST National
University. They are registered in the
English Writing Composition course which
is the second semester course of their
Computer Science degree program. They
have taken the Basic English language
course in their first semester, which has a
seven week of English writing module.
All the participants come from the
Intermediate background where English is
taught as a subject course, hence their weak
English language proficiency.
3.2. Instrument
The instrument used in the study is essays
written by 50 participants. The topic given
in the essays was general but argumentative
in nature. The participants were required to
narrow it down to more specific one in order
to develop the argument in 300-350 words.
It was a guided activity as the participants
were to follow the proper structure of an
essay; interesting opening, thesis statement,
logically coherent main body and relevant
conclusion. The composition and expression
of ideas were expected to be grammatically
correct along with correct spellings. I
checked all the 50 essays and collected the
errors for the study.
3.3. Data of Errors
I organized the data of errors according to
the following steps:
1. Collection of sample of learner
language: English essays written by
non native undergraduate students.
2. Identification of errors: Actual errors
3. Description of errors: Categorization
of errors based on their specific
nature
4. Evaluation of errors: Affecting
intelligibility of social acceptability.
Table1. Error Analysis of 50 Essays (Annexure I)
Identification
Description
Explanation
Evaluation
We people
Literal translation
We or we as a nation
Exp: Literal
translation of the
words “hum log” from
the Urdu language
Error does not affects
intelligibility and
social acceptability
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 36
Very worse
Grammar
Worse
Exp: Use of very with
worse which itself
shows comparative
degree
Error does not affects
intelligibility and
social acceptability
From the starting
Word usage
From the beginning
Exp: The word
beginning will
substitute starting.
Although both have
the same meaning but
the art of using the
appropriate word is a
thing apart
Error does not affects
intelligibility and
social acceptability
4. Results
Results show that 61 out of 76 errors which
were collected from the essays, resulted
from learners‟ Interlanguage process and 15
errors were those which resulted from
mother tongue (MT) interference (Table 2).
Therefore, the percentage (Annexure II) of
Interlanguage errors is 46.36% and the
percentage of errors based on MT
interference is 11.4%. The results show a
significant difference between these two
types of error occurrences.
Table 2. Comparison between Mother Tongue Interference Errors and Interlanguage Errors
(Annexure II)
Items
Mother Tongue
Interference Errors
Items
Interlanguage Errors
1
We people
1
From the starting
2
Gradually gradually
2
Unsincere
3
4
5
Definately
Philosiphy
Critaria
3
4
5
6
Year‟s (years), Leader‟s
(leaders)
Effect‟s (effects)
Politic‟s (politics)
5. Discussion
In order to understand the errors committed
by the participants, it is important to first
discuss the errors which resulted from
mother tongue interference first. In the
course of L2 production in the essays, the
learners who committed errors of MT
interference seemed to have transferred
some of the L1 structures into L2 but error
occurred when there was no corresponding
structures in the L2 e.g. the learner used
“gradually, gradually,” which is a direct
translation of a common Urdu phrase
“ahista, ahista,” instead of „slowly and
gradually.‟ Since the learner did not find a
corresponding counterpart in TL, therefore,
he/she transferred inappropriate properties
of L1 into L2. In the case of some of the
misspelled words, learners experienced
phonological MT influence e.g. in the case
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 37
of “definately” the L2 learner spelt the
word as spoken in day to day conversation
with influence of [ eI] sound of MT instead
of [I] sound of the underlined phone : def-i-
nite-ly.
The Interlanguage errors in the study have
provided evidence of the inner working of
the language learning process, and the
language in use having an intermediate
status between the mother tongue (MT) and
the target language (TL). The application of
the transitional rules has resulted into the
systematic deviation from the TL. The
participants‟ previous experience of
exposure to English language was mostly
confined to classroom only where the
English was taught through grammar
translation method. The participants were
taught the rules of grammar first and were
provided with insufficient learning
environment to practice those rules. The
participants feel a huge gap between the
knowledge of L2 that they have and its
relevant application. The errors which show
redundancy e.g. “Poor people are becoming
poor and more poor,” and affect
intelligibility indicate lack of vocabulary
and the overgeneralization of rules of TL. In
the absence of sufficient practice, the
learners produce the language system which
deviates from the system of TL.
There are some errors which, although, are
errors by all technical definition but still
they neither affect the intelligibility nor the
social acceptability of an addressee in our
culture. For example, “we people,” is an
error which is very common among L2
learners as it occurs mostly because of MT
(Urdu) interference, but the occurrences of
such errors are so common in our culture
that they tend to be overlooked. This
tendency of overlooking an error which
becomes acceptable due to its ability of
being able to convey the intended meaning
in a particular culture, can lead to
fossilization. Fossilized errors in writing
become ingrained and despite correction and
remediation they reappear.
Among the errors collected from the essays,
one unique error has been indentified which
will likely to open new areas of research in
error analysis of English writing of non
native speakers. One of the participants
wrote “lyfe,” and “fite,” in the essay and
later on in the same essay these misspelled
words appeared with the correct spellings;
“life,” and “fight.” These days, the reduced
spelled words are heavily used in short
Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03
July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 38
message service (SMS) and online chat.
This shows the negative influence of theses
technologies especially on L2 learners who
are committing unwanted errors despite
having the right understanding of otherwise
a limited knowledge of rules of TL.
Conclusion
The results of the study show that majority
of errors are grammatical resulting from
Interlanguage process. Though, the
participants were taught grammatical rules
of TL previously but the lack of practice and
positive feedback hindered the development
of their proficiency in TL. Errors projecting
redundancy show the lack of TL lexicon.
Some of the errors indicate participants‟
carelessness in the writing which shows lack
of motivation for TL. This is a very common
phenomenon that L2 learner often feels
demotivated and develop negative attitude
towards the target language. It results from
teachers‟ traditional role of overly correcting
the errors and treating them as an object of
undesirability. Another reason for
demoralization is that since acquisition of a
language is a cognitive activity, often L2
learners in our culture feel a psychological
distance between them and the target
culture.
In Pakistan, language community of non-
native speakers of English language, people
mostly ignore the repeated errors, rather due
to lack of linguistic competence, they are
sometime unable to identify them as errors.
This frequently leads to the social
acceptance of an error. These errors can
initiate further research into the error studies
about the possibility of fossilization of such
errors or at one point of being ceased to be
considered as errors at all in the Pakistani
English language context.
Another area for potential research is to
examine the errors caused by the influence
of internet communication and SMS
technology and propose mechanism for
addressing the issue.
Error Analysis can help the English
language teachers to identify the
problematic areas of language learning by
providing a deep insight into learner‟s
second language acquisition process. By
studying the changes that occur in the errors
of L2 learners in their continuous learning
process, the teachers can predict the likely
errors and can prepare their instructional
material accordingly.
[...]... implications for teaching System, 15, [6] James, C (1988) Errors in language 465-477 learning and use: Exploring error analysis [14] James, C 2001 Errors in language Harlow, learning and use: Exploring error analysis Essex: Addison Wesley Longman Limited Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press July 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 39 Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS... „ahista ahista and „rafta rafta‟ Repetition of this word, putting them together, is correct in the Urdu language but incorrect in English Suppose ones first language is Urdu but one is putting down that idea in English the error points towards not only lack of command over the second language but literal translation of the word or the phrase Spend a few million Exp: With the use of a few‟ the plural... form of the word million is by no means suitable Socrates Exp: Since the name sounds almost the way it has been spelt here in the Urdu language, this mistake can take place when one is not only unfamiliar with the correct spelling and pronunciation but the sound of „e‟ in Greek A lot of people came to the party The peoples of England Exp: Most of the people are altogether ignorant of the fact that „peoples‟... language attitude and motivation London: Edward in the context of Brunei Darulsalam In Arnold A. M [12] Richards, J C 1971 A Non-contrastive [5] Noor et al (eds.) Strategising teaching approach and Language Teaching Journal, 25, 204-219 learning in the 21st century Lee, to I error analysis (1997) ESL English Proceedings of the [13] Learners' European Journal of Social Sciences – performance in error. .. Exp: There is absolutely no need to use these two Error affects intelligibility and social acceptability Error affects intelligibility and social acceptability Error affects intelligibility and social acceptability Error affects intelligibility Error affects intelligibility Error affects intelligibility ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 46 Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291)... talking about a certain disease even if the name has not been mentioned in that particular clause it is understood that it points towards something significant hence needs to be preceded by the not a Pakistan Exp: All proper nouns begin with a capital letter Pakistan is the name of a country and a proper noun so the same rule applies here Beautiful Exp: The word full is a common word in the English language... is written in Urdu there is no Error affects intelligibility Error affects intelligibility and social acceptability Error affects intelligibility Error affects intelligibility ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 48 Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03 Found/founded Differentiation Gradually gradually Literal translation Spend a few millions Grammar... vowel that might have been used in the word and that can easily lead to confusion and ambiguity resulting in such errors Catastrophe Exp: The word has been spelt the way it sounds Since there are many Greek words in the English language the rules should be made clear Rubbish/nonsense Exp: Although it is used in colloquial language rather frequently the word is not appropriate as far as formal writing is... singular whereas the verb used is one that should have been used with a plural noun as a result of which the subject and the verb convey different ideas and are not in harmony Do not Exp: Spacing is required because do and not are two separate words that come together to form a new word but they are still written as two separate words The latter merely succeeds Error affects intelligibility and social acceptability... intelligibility Error affects intelligibility Error affects intelligibility Error affects ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 42 Asian Transactions on Basic & Applied Sciences (ATBAS ISSN: 2221-4291) Volume 01 Issue 03 Quaid-e-azam/Punjab Article Dont Punctuation Does‟nt Punctuation Negetive Spelling mistake Catastrophi Spelling mistake Crap Use of slang Affect/effect Differentiation Ambission Spelling mistake Commiting . of Pakistani Undergraduate Students: A Case Study Summaira Sarfraz, Assistant Professor, Email sumaira.sarfraz@nu.edu.pk Department of Sciences and Humanities FAST-National University of. Computer and Emerging Sciences Lahore Campus, Pakistan Abstract The study aims to examine the errors in a corpus of 50 English essays written by 50 participants (undergraduate Pakistani students) 2011 ATBAS-10124032©Asian-Transactions 34 The study of transfer involves the study of errors (negative transfer), facilitation (positive transfer), avoidance of target language forms, and their
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