Da ng Tha nh Ha Tra n Dinh Tha o N g uye n Tri Khie m Ma i Xua n Trie u Ro b e rta V G e rpa c io Pra b hu L Ping a li M aize in Vietnam: Production Systems, Constraints, and Research Priorities Da ng Tha nh Ha Tra n Dinh Tha o N g uye n Tri Khie m Ma i Xua n Trie u Ro b e rta V G e rp a c io Pra b hu L Ping a li1 Respectively, Faculty of Econom ics, Nong Lam University (NLU), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam ; Lecturer, Hanoi Agriculture University (HAU), Hanoi, Vietnam ; Dean, Faculty of Econom ics, An Giang University, Vietnam ; Vice Director, National Maize Research Institute, Dan Phuong, Ha Tay, Vietnam ; Research Associate, CIMMYT Econom ics Program , CIMMYT Office at IRRI, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines; Director, Agriculture and Developm ent Econom ics Division, FAO, Rom e, Italy CIMMYT® (www.cim m yt.org) is an internationally funded, not-for-profit organization that conducts research and training related to m aize and wheat throughout the developing world Drawing on strong science and effective partnerships, CIMMYT works to create, share, and use knowledge and technology to increase food security, im prove the productivity and pr ofitability of farm ing system s, and sustain natural resources Financial support for CIMMYT’s work com es from m any sources, including the m em bers of the Consultative Gr oup on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) (www.cgiar.org), national governm ents, foundations, developm ent banks, and other public and private agencies © International Maize and Wheat Im provem ent Center (CIMMYT) 2004 All rights reserved The designations em ployed in the presentation of m aterials in this publication not im ply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of CIMMYT or its contributory organizations concer ning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area, or of its authorities, or concer ning the delim itation of its frontiers or boundaries CIMMYT encourages fair use of this m aterial Proper citation is requested Co rre ct citatio n: Thanh Ha, D., T Dinh Thao, N Tri Khiem , M Xuan Trieu, R.V Gerpacio, and P.L Pingali 2004 Maize in Vietnam : Production System s, Constraints, and Research Priorities Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT Abs tract: This is one of a series of seven in-depth country studies on m aize production system s in Asia, funded by the International Maize and Wheat Im provem ent Center (CIMMYT) and the International Fund for Agricultural Developm ent (IFAD) It is part of a project designed to prom ote sustainable intensification of m aize production system s while ensuring equitable incom e growth and im proved food security, especially for poor households that depend on m aize This study characterized the social and biophysical m aize production environm ent of Thailand; exam ined its response to incr easing m aize dem and; determ ined constraints to future productivity growth; investigated the potential environm ental consequences, and exam ined the options available for prom oting sustainable growth in m aize production Maize is the second m ost im portant food crop in Vietnam after rice It is the substitute staple in periods of rice shortage, especially for people in rural areas and m ountainous r egions Maize is also the prim ary source of feed for Vietnam ’s poultry and livestock industry, and is therefore an im portant sour ce of incom e for m any farm ers Maize production has risen sharply since 1990, when the Vietnam ese governm ent began to strongly support and prom ote m aize hybrid technology Vietnam ese farm ers have widely adopted higher-yielding hybrid m aize varieties This was a tim ely response to Vietnam ’s growing livestock and poultry industry, which in turn generates an increasing dem and for m ore m aize to use as feed Rapid econom ic growth and accelerated urbanization are expected to create an even higher dem and for m aize in Vietnam This trend will lead to the intensification of current m aize production system s, with m ore land being shifted to m aize production, particularly in m arginal areas Vietnam ’s challenge is to provide m ore m aize for an expanding m arket, while preserving the natural resource base and the environm ent through careful agricultural planning Effective policy design and im plem entation m ust be based on com prehensive, accurate data on the current state of m aize-based farm ing system s ISBN : 970-648-122-2 AGROVOC de s cripto rs : Seed production; Maize; Rice; Varieties; Hybrids; Food crops; Food security; Farm ing system s; Rural areas; Far m ers; Poverty; Livestock m anagem ent; Yield increases; Econom ic growth; Marketing; Environm ental factors; Agricultural r esources; Agricultural policies; International organizations; Project m anagem ent; Viet Nam AGRIS cate go ry co de s : E16 Production Econom ics F01 Crop Husbandry De w e y de cimal clas s ificatio n: 633.1597 Printed in Mexico iii Contents Page No Table s v Figure s v Ackno w le dgme nts vi Intro ductio n 1.1 Background 1.2 Objective 1.3 Methodology 1 2 1.4 Lim itations Maize Agro - e co lo gie s in Vie tnam 2.1 General Topography 2.2 General Characteristics of Maize Production Agro-ecologies 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.2.1 Northern upland 2.2.2 Northern lowland 2.2.3 Central highland-central coast upland 2.2.4 Central highland-central coast lowland 2.2.5 Southeast region-Mekong Delta upland 2.2.6 Southeast region-Mekong Delta lowland Biophysical Environm ent 2.3.1 Clim ate 2.3.2 Soil types Institutional Environm ent 2.4.1 Line agencies 2.4.2 Cooperative and user groups 2.4.3 Sources of input 2.4.4 Credit institutions 2.4.5 Prices of inputs and outputs Infrastructure 11 2.5.1 Accessibility status 11 2.5.2 Markets and m arketing practices 11 2.5.3 Irrigation facilities 12 2.5.4 Processing and post-harvest facilities 12 Socioeconom ic Characteristics 12 2.6.1 Households and ethnicity 12 2.6.2 Farm er classification 13 2.6.3 Literacy and level of education 14 2.6.4 Landholdings and tenure system s 14 2.6.5 Level of incom e and poverty 15 2.6.6 Maize utilization 15 iv Maize Pro ductio n Tre nds and Sys te ms 16 3.1 Maize Production Trends 3.2 Maize Production System s 3.2.1 Major farm enterprises 3.2.2 Maize cropping patterns and calendar 3.2.3 Soil m anagem ent 3.2.4 Maize varieties grown and far m er preferences 3.2.5 Land preparation and crop m anagem ent practices 3.2.6 Labor and m aterial input use 3.2.7 Yields and yield gap 3.2.8 Post-harvest practices 16 17 17 17 20 20 21 22 23 23 Maize Pro ductio n Co ns traints 4.1 Biotic and Abiotic Constraints 4.2 Institutional Constraints 4.3 Inform ation Constraints 25 25 26 26 4.4 Input Supply Constraints 27 4.5 Other Constraints 27 Prio rity Co ns traints fo r Maize Re s e arch and De ve lo pme nt 28 5.1 Methodology for Identifying Priority Constraints 28 5.2 Priority Constraints 5.2.1 Northern upland 5.2.2 Northern lowland 5.2.3 Central highland-central coast upland 5.2.4 Central highland-central coast lowland 5.2.5 Southeast region-Mekong Delta upland 5.2.6 Southeast region-Mekong Delta lowland 29 30 30 31 31 31 31 Age nda fo r Maize Re s e arch and De ve lo pme nt in Vie tnam 32 6.1 Research and Technology Developm ent 34 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Technology Dissem ination Input Supply and Output Marketing The Role of Public and Private Sectors Institutional Policies 35 35 35 36 Re fe re nce s 37 Anne xe s 38 v Tables Page No Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Main characteristics of the surveyed villages, Vietnam , 2001 Soil types in the six m ajor m aize agro-ecologies, Vietnam , 2001 Average prices of farm inputs and outputs, Vietnam , 2001 10 Percentage of villages having vehicle access, Vietnam , 2001 11 Ethnic com position of population in survey sites, Vietnam , 2001 12 Classification of farm ers in the surveyed villages, Vietnam , 2001 13 Distribution of population by literacy and education levels in surveyed villages, Vietnam , 2001 14 Distribution of incom e by sources in surveyed villages, Vietnam , 2001 14 Rural poverty situation in Vietnam , 1999 15 Table 10 Utilization of locally produced m aize as % of total production, Vietnam , 2001 15 Table 11 Area, production and yield of m aize, Vietnam , 1995-2000 16 Table 12 Average num ber of livestock per household in surveyed villages, Vietnam , 2001 17 Table 13 Distribution of m aize area by crop seasons (% of total m aize area), Vietnam , 2001 18 Table 14 Distribution of m ajor cropping patterns (% of total m aize area), Vietnam , 2001 18 Table 15 Desirable varietal characteristics for different m aize production system s, Vietnam , 2001 (% of farm ers in favor) 21 Table 16 Average level of input use in m aize cultivation in surveyed villages, Vietnam , 2001 22 Table 17 Maize yield by variety (kg/ ha), Vietnam , 2001 23 Table 18 Losses due to m ajor diseases and pests in m aize fields and in storage (% of total production), Vietnam , 2001 24 Table 19 Top 25 priority ranked m ajor m aize production constraints in Vietnam 29 Table 20 Priority problem s of m aize production across agro-ecologies, Vietnam 30 Table 21 Approaches ranked by likelihood of producing an im pact on alleviating constraints to m aize production in Vietnam 32 Figures Page No Figure Map of Vietnam Geographical regions where RRA and PRA surveys were conducted Figure Maize crop calendar, Vietnam , 2001 19 Annexes Page No Anne x Prioritization of m aize production constraints in Vietnam 38 Anne x Solutions ranked by likelihood of pr oducing an im pact on alleviating constraints to m aize production and potential suppliers of the solutions 40 vi Acknow ledgments This m anuscript reports on the results of the rapid rural appraisal (RRA) and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) surveys conducted in 19 villages acr oss 13 provinces of Vietnam from January to July 2001 It also includes discussions fr om the National Maize Research and Developm ent Priority-Setting Workshop, held at the Victory Hotel, Ho Chi Minh City, on 14-16 January 2002, and fr om the Fifth Annual Workshop of the Asian Maize Socio-Econom ic Working Group held in Bangkok, Thailand, on 1-4 August 2002 The authors would like to thank the United Nations International Fund for Developm ent (IFAD) and CIMMYT for the grant that enabled the conduct of this work, and their respective university rectors and departm ent heads for supporting their active participation on this Asia-wide study and in the Asian Maize SocioEconom ics Working Group The authors would like also to thank in particular Drs Prabhu Pingali and Michael Morris, both form er Directors of the Econom ics Program at CIMMYT for supporting this work; project coordinator Roberta Gerpacio; the m aize farm ers and village officers who patiently sat in on discussions and interviews; the m aize experts who participated in the national m aize R&D prioritization workshop, and our research assistants, who helped on all aspects of this project Finally, we acknowledge the editorial review of this docum ent by Crissan Zeigler, consultant, and Alm a McNab, senior science writer/ editor, as well as the design and form atting services of Eliot Sánchez Pineda, CIMMYT Corporate Com m unications, Mexico 1 Introduction 1 Ba ck ground Vietnam has a population of 80 m illion people, with nearly 80% living in rural areas Agriculture em ploys nearly 67% of the total labor force This sector experienced dram atic reform s in the last 20 years, as Vietnam shifted from a centrally planned to a state regulated m arket-oriented econom y Agriculture changed from a cooperative and state farm production system , to a system based predom inantly on production by individual far m ers The household becam e the basic unit of agricultural production, with the farm ers deciding which crops to grow based on m arket signals This change in agriculture production, along with institutional and policy reform s, m ade Vietnam one of the top three rice exporting countries in the world in 1989 and 1996 Other perennial crops, such as rubber, coffee, tea, m ulberry, and m aize, have also shown production increases Maize is the second m ost im portant food crop in Vietnam , next to rice It is the substitute staple in periods of rice shortage, especially for people in the rural areas and m ountainous regions Maize is also the prim ary source of feed for Vietnam ’s poultry and livestock industry, and is therefore an im portant source of incom e for m any farm ers Maize production has risen sharply since 1990, when only 431,800 were planted to m aize, yielding an average of 1.6 t/ for a total production of 671,000 t Since then, the governm ent has strongly supported m aize hybrid technology and the resultant hybrid m aize varieties have been widely adopted by farm ers In addition, the livestock and poultry industry has grown, creating a need for m ore m aize to use as feed From 1990 to 1999, total m aize production increased by 161% The total area planted to m aize by 1999 was 659,100 yielding an average of 2.5 t/ (Vietnam Statistical Yearbook, 2001) This dram atic change in m aize dem and and production has m ade a significant positive econom ic contribution to m any rural areas of Vietnam Rapid econom ic growth and accelerated urbanization in the country are expected to create an even higher dem and for m aize This trend will lead to an intensification of current m aize production system s, with m ore land being devoted to m aize cultivation, particularly in the m arginal uplands The increasing com m ercialization and intensification of m aize production in these upland areas could have negative environm ental consequences Vietnam ’s challenge is to provide m ore m aize for an expanding m arket, while preserving the natural resource base and the environm ent through careful agricultural planning Effective policy design and im plem entation m ust be based on com prehensive and accurate data on the current state of upland m aize-based farm ing system s Given the problem of resource degradation and the high level of poverty in the uplands of Vietnam , this study focused specifically on the upland m aize production system s in the country The goal was to clarify the probable response of upland areas to the future growth in dem and for m aize by determ ining the constraints to future productivity growth, and the potential environm ental consequences, and by collecting inform ation about the options available for pr om oting sustainable im provem ents in m aize production This study is part of a project designed to prom ote sustainable intensification of m aize production system s while ensuring equitable incom e growth and im proved food security for poor households that depend on m aize The project was funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Developm ent (IFAD) and im plem ented under the direct supervision of the CIMMYT Econom ics Program The project has been im plem ented in seven countries – China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam 2 O bjective M ethodology The study aim ed to help research and developm ent efforts better m eet requirem ents for increasing productivity of the m aize sector in the country The specific objectives of the study were to: Detailed data on upland m aize pr oduction system s in Vietnam were collected using a two-stage fieldwork strategy designed by CIMMYT, that includes a rapid rural appraisal (RRA) in the first stage and participatory rural appraisal (PRA) in the second stage of fieldwork The RRA surveys were conducted in both com m ercial and sem i-com m ercial m aize production system s in the upland and lowland m aize areas of all eight m ajor agroecological zones in the country (Table 1) • Gather detailed inform ation for identifying and analyzing m ajor characteristics of different m aize production system s by agro-ecological zones and geographical regions in Vietnam , with special em phasis on upland m aize production system s; • Identify constraints that lim it m aize production in those zones and regions; • Identify priority constraints and solutions to alleviate those constraints in order to help the m aize sector better target its research and developm ent efforts; and • Make recom m endations for m aize research and developm ent policies that will prom ote m aize production in each agro-ecological zone/ geographical region in the country The pr ovinces chosen for the RRA fieldwork were selected for the im portance of m aize and m aize farm ing in the com m unities, and for their agro-ecological representation Villages within the provinces were selected for their dom inant m aize production system s, accessibility status, and the extent of m aize cultivating area The RRA study was done in 19 villages selected as survey sites acr oss the m ajor agro-ecologies of the country for their differing socioeconom ic conditions (Table 1) For the RRA work, a general RRA questionnaire prepared by CIMMYT was pre-tested and r evised to fit Vietnam ’s specific m aize production conditions, Table Main characteristics of the sur veyed villages, Vietnam, 2001 M aize varieties reported Agroecology Village (Province) Production orientation Northern Upland Yen Dong (Vinh Phuc) Ban Hoa (Son La) Pache (Son La) Phong Quang (Ha Giang) Dong Xuan (Bac Giang) Upland Semi-commercial Upland Commercial Upland Commercial Upland Semi-commercial Upland Self-sufficient Thanh Van (Phu Tho) Upland Semi-commercial Hybrid Northern Lowland Dong Thap (Ha Tay) Lowland Commercial Central HighlandCentral Coast Upland Bai Tranh (Thanh Hoa) Ating (Quang Nam) Kado (Lam Dong) % land irrigated w ith communal Distance M aize irrigation Road to market seasons systems conditions (km) Population 60 0 30 Good Fair Fair Poor Good 20 10 315 173 28 312 1600 1755 1038 140 1560 7360 SS, WS 62 Good 1300 5561 Hybrid SS, WS 80 Good 467 2420 Upland Semi-commercial Upland Semi-commercial Upland Semi-commercial Local, OPV Local, OPV, Hybrid Local, OPV, Hybrid SS, SA SA, WS SA 0 Poor Fair Fair 25 108 338 1437 436 1928 8191 Pro’ (Lam Dong) Cour Knia (Dak Lak) Upland Semi-commercial Upland Commercial Local, Hybrid Local, Hybrid SA, AW SA, AW 10 20 Fair Relatively good 779 2400 4455 11827 Ea Bar (Dak Lak) Nhan Hoa (Gia Lai) Quang Truong (Thanh Hoa) Upland Commercial Local, OPV, Hybrid Upland Commercial Local, Hybrid Lowland Semi-commercial Hybrid SA, AW SA, WS WS 17 10 60 Fair to poor Relatively good Good 4 3505 1744 951 18583 10167 5230 Dien Phuoc (Quang Nam) Dai Quang (Quang Nam) Lowland Commercial Lowland Commercial Local, Hybrid Local, OPV, Hybrid SA, WS SS, WS 70 15 Relatively good Fair 2850 2606 12269 14895 Southeast-Mekong Cay Gao (Dong Nai) Delta Upland Upland Commercial Local, OPV, Hybrid SS, SA, AW Poor 1606 9078 Southeast-Mekong Phu Tam (Soc Trang) Lowland Semi-commercial Local, OPV SS Relatively good 2800 15960 Central HighlandCentral Coast Lowland OPV, Hybrid WS Local, Hybrid SA Hybrid SA Local, OPV, Hybrid SS, SA Local, Hybrid SS, WS, AW No of households Delta Lowland Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam RRA/ PRA Surveys, 2001 Notes: OPV= Open pollinated variety, SS= Spring-summer, SA= Summer-autumn, AW= Autumn-winter, WS= Winter -spring 100 especially in term s of agro-ecological zones, seasons, and land use or type The questionnaire was used in an “open-ended” m anner, m eaning interview questions were used as guides rather than as fixed questions, to better allow the researchers and respondents m axim um flexibility in com m unicating about m aize production system s under survey senior m aize research scientists from agricultural research institutions and universities, representatives from pr ovincial extension centers and district People’s Com m ittees, and CIMMYT scientists The National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop in Vietnam was conducted at the Victory Hotel, Ho Chi Minh City, on January 14-16, 2002 A m ulti-disciplinary team conducted the RRA surveys that covered both farm and village levels Secondary inform ation at the village level was collected through interviews with village leaders The interview covered inform ation on the site’s physical environm ent (e.g annual rainfall, m ean tem perature, land use, etc.); biological environm ent (e.g m aize-based cr opping system s and m ean cropping intensity by season, area planted to local/ traditional m aize, im proved open pollinated varieties (OPVs), and hybrids by season); and institutional environm ent (particularly land tenure system ) Farm -level socioeconom ic inform ation was collected through farm er group interviews Two groups of 10 household representatives with different socioeconom ic status and gender were interviewed in each of the study sites Som e village-level secondary inform ation was also collected from the offices of village and district People’s Com m ittees As suggested by workshop participants, m aize production agro-ecologies were further redefined into six agro-ecological regions that capture both the upland and lowland production environm ents in three m ajor geographical regions of the country—the north (covering the northeast, northwest, and Red River Delta), the central highland and central coast uplands and lowlands, and the southeast region and Mekong Delta Data were later sum m arized for these m aize production agro-ecologies The PRA was conducted in a subset of the RRA sites to gather m ore qualitative than quantitative inform ation Based on inform ation collected from the RRA surveys, four upland m aize-producing villages located in different ecological zones were selected for conducting PRA surveys The goal of the PRA was to collect detailed inform ation from farm er group discussions on the socioeconom ic, agro-ecological and environm ental, and technological and m arketing aspects of m aize production system s For PRA work, a com m on list of open-ended questions was used to help the resear ch team better facilitate farm er group discussions The RRA survey was conducted in January-May, 2001, and the PRA survey was conducted in May-July, 2001 Inform ation collected from the RRA fieldwork was first analyzed and sum m arized by village and by ecological zone Results were presented during the national workshop on identifying priority constraints for m aize research and developm ent that were attended by Major characteristics of m aize production system s and constraints gathered fr om the RRA/ PRA field surveys were used for the identification of priority constraints and the setting of research and developm ent agenda for the m aize sector in Vietnam The m ethodology used for identifying priority constraints for m aize research and developm ent is presented in a later section of this report Lim ita tions The initial selection of the eight survey sites based on ecological zones was changed to six m ajor agroecologies, which m eant the survey villages were no longer equally distributed am ong the redefined agroecologies As the study focuses specifically on upland m aize production system s in the country, a larger num ber of survey sites were selected for upland agroecologies than for lowland agro-ecologies This potentially m eans that not all im portant m aize production characteristics of lowland agr o-ecologies were fully researched The study m ainly uses inform ation collected from the RRA/ PRA farm er-group surveys, with lim ited inform ation from individual farm s, hence setting a lim itation for m ore robust statistical analysis 29 In this study, the total m aize production of each agroecology was com puted based on the national statistical data for 2000 The poverty index was used as a prioritization tool that redir ects research and developm ent efforts in the m aize sector to areas with the highest rural poverty The poverty index was derived as a product of the efficiency index and proportion of rural households living below the poverty line in each agro-ecology The proportion of rural poverty in each agro-ecology was com puted based on the national statistical data As there were no detailed data on rural poverty available for the year 2000, statistical data on rural poverty for 1999 were used in this study Another index for priority setting is the subsistence index used to target R&D investm ents in areas with a high proportion of subsistence farm ers This index is com puted as the product of efficiency index and the proportion of m aize used as food by farm households However, because m aize has lost its im portance as food for hom e consum ption in m any areas of Vietnam , the proportion of m aize used as food was found to be very sm all in all agro-ecologies, and subsistence index was therefore not included in the analysis To consider the problem s of the pr oduction environm ent and m aize yield variability across m aize production agro-ecologies, a m arginality index was also included in the analysis The m arginality index was com puted as the inverse of the average yield of m aize in a specific agro-ecology The com bined index was then derived as a sum of the weighted efficiency, poverty, and m arginality indices Based on the im portance of efficiency and poverty issues and risk factors in the production environm ent, participants agreed to use a weight of 0.5, 0.3, and 0.2 for the efficiency, poverty, and m arginality index, respectively Hence, the com bined index was com puted by adding the products of 0.5 * efficiency index, 0.3 * poverty index, and 0.2 * m arginality index Priority Constra ints The efficiency, poverty, m arginality, and com bined indices were used for ranking m aize production constraints across m aize production agro-ecologies in the country The m ost im portant 25 constraints based on the com bined index are listed in Table 19 Table 19 Top 25 priority ranked major maize production constraints in Vietnam Rank based on Region Production System Constraint Efficiency Poverty M arginality Combined North UPSC North North North North SEMK UPSC UPSC UPSC UPSC UPC Lack of knowledge-cultural practices 1 1 Lack of investment capital Lack of suitable varieties Poor market access and undeveloped transport system Poor technology transfer system Declining soil fertility 2 30 SEMK North North CCH SEMK UPC UPSC UPSC UPC UPC Drought Drought Undeveloped input supply system Lack of info on technology Lack of info on technology 10 11 31 33 15 11 10 11 CCH CCH CCH North SEMK UPC UPC UPC LWC UPC Inefficient use of fertilizers & pesticides Declining soil fertility Lack of investment capital Tight cropping calendar Lack of capital 12 14 15 17 13 10 12 14 18 37 18 19 20 12 14 12 13 14 15 16 North SEMK North CCH SEMK LWC UPC UPSC UPC UPC High production costs Uneven distribution of knowledge on maize cultivation Lack of post-harvest facilities Drought Lack of market information 18 16 19 21 20 19 41 20 46 13 16 10 26 23 17 18 19 20 21 CCH North CCH CCH UPC UPSC LWC LWC Lack of post-harvest facilities Sloping land and soil erosion Lack of info on technology Inefficient fertilizer use 22 23 24 25 21 16 11 13 27 17 21 22 22 23 24 25 Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 Notes: is the highest priority and 25 is the lowest priority CCH= Central highland-central coast, SEMK= Southeast-Mekong Delta UPSC= upland semi-commercial maize production, UPC= upland commercial, LWC= lowland commercial 30 25 Of these 25 top priority constraints, 16 are from com m ercial m aize production system s in the north, central coast and highlands, and southeastern regionMekong River Delta, and nine are from sem icom m ercial system s all in the northern r egion In term s of m aize agro-ecology, nine constraints wer e identified for the northern upland, seven for the central highlandscentral coast upland, six for the southeast-Mekong Delta upland agro-ecology, and only four constraints for the lowland agro-ecologies (the northern lowland and the central highlands-central coast lowland) The priority constraints to m aize production in each agro-ecology are discussed below N orthern upla nd There are nine priority constraints identified for this agro-ecology (Table 20), with the forem ost constraint to im proving m aize cultivation being lack of technical inform ation, that is, poor technology transfer Ethnic m inority farm ers, who are sem i-literate and have little access to inform ation, populate the rem ote villages in this region A very poor technology transfer system characterized by few hum an or financial resources, few public extension services, and bad roads lim its the am ount and quality of technology transfer Lim ited experience in working with ethnic farm ers and language barriers are also problem s that reduce the efficiency of the few existing extension services Lack of investm ent capital is the second m ost im portant constraint to m aize production, particularly for the poor ethnic m inority farm ers Farm ers also suffer from too few suitable varieties, specifically high-yielding varieties with short-duration, to fit with their upland soil, clim atic, and cropping patter n conditions An under developed transportation system in this often m ountainous or sloping terrain lim its the exchange of inputs and farm products from and to the local m arket or to other regions, and also m akes it difficult and costly Poor m arket access and the underdeveloped transportation system ar e therefore im portant constraints to m aize production in this agro-ecology Other priority constraints to m aize pr oduction in the norther n upland agro-ecology include drought, undeveloped input supply system , lack of post-harvest facilities, and sloping land and soil erosion 2 N or thern low la nd Only two priority constraints to m aize production were identified for the norther n lowland agro-ecology, a tight cropping calendar and high production costs In the norther n lowland agro-ecology, particularly in the Red River Delta, there is a large com m ercial m aize area cultivated under irrigated conditions Maize is usually planted in the winter-spring or spring-sum m er crop seasons The winter-spring m aize planted in Septem ber-October and harvested in January is the Table 20 Priority problems of maize production across agro-ecologies, Vietnam Ecology North Upland Low land Lack of knowledge on cultural practices Tight cropping calendar Lack of investment capital Lack of suitable varieties Poor market access and underdeveloped transport system Poor technology transfer system Drought High production costs Undeveloped input supply system Lack of post-harvest facilities Sloping land and soil erosion Central CoastCentral Highlands Lack of info on technology Inefficient use of fertilizers and pesticides Declining soil fertility Lack of investment capital Drought Lack of post-harvest facilities Southeast-Mekong River Delta Declining soil fertility Drought Lack of info on technology Lack of capital Uneven distribution of knowledge on maize cultivation Lack of market information Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 Lack of info on technology Inefficient fertilizer use 56 31 third crop after two rice crops This very tight cropping calendar is the m ost im portant constraint in the area, as farm ers have only a very short tim e between the two consecutive crops High production cost is the second constraint in this agro-ecology, particularly due to high input use such as labor and chem ical fertilizer, and very sm all farm size Centra l highla nd—centra l coa st upla nd There were seven priority constraints identified for this agro-ecology, with the forem ost constraint to im proving m aize cultivation being lack of technical inform ation, that is, poor technology transfer Inefficient use of fertilizers and pesticides is another im portant priority constraint associated with this lack of technology awareness While the risk of soil erosion is not so severe as com pared to that in the northern upland agro-ecology, declining soil fertility is another im portant factor that hinders m aize productivity growth in the central highlands-central coast upland As in the northern upland areas, lack of investm ent capital, drought, and lack of post-harvest facilities are also priority constraints identified for this upland agroecology Centra l highla nd—centra l coa st low la nd Lack of technical inform ation and inefficient fertilizer use are two priority constraints to m aize production in the central highlands-central coast lowland agro-ecology While farm ers in this agro-ecology ar e also often severely affected by storm s, typhoons, and dry and hot western winds, these problem s were not considered to be high priority constraints, as there is nothing m an can to change the weather 5 Southea st region-M ek ong Delta upla nd Priority constraints to m aize production in this agroecology include declining soil fertility, drought, lack of technology understanding, lack of capital, and lack of m arket inform ation, which are sim ilar to those identified in other upland agro-ecologies Declining soil fertility (leading to declining m aize yields) and exhaustion of soil resources, particularly under sloping field conditions, were identified as the m ost im portant constraints for m aize production system s in this agr oecology In general, there is a relatively good m arketing system in this agro-ecology, but the developm ent of m ore efficient m arketing system s is considered to be a m ajor stim ulus to m aize productivity growth here Lack of m arket inform ation is also a m ajor constraint, particularly for farm ers in m ore rem ote areas of this region Southea st region-M ek ong Delta low la nd No priority constraint in this agro-ecology appeared in the top 25 priority constraints of the m aize sector of the country This is probably due to the fact that m aize production in this agr o-ecology contributes only a sm all proportion to total m aize production in the country Investm ent in research and developm ent efforts to elim inate constraints in this agro-ecology will have negligible im pact on the country as a whole 32 Agenda for M aize Research and Development in Vietnam The m aize R&D planning process proceeded to identify possible solutions to the top 25 priority constraints identified for the upland and lowland m aize production system s At the national priority-setting workshop, the working groups also estim ated the pr obability of success for each solution to alleviate a specific constraint and the probability that farm ers would adopt the solution The m ost effective alleviating technologies or processes would have a high probability of success and high probability of being adopted by farm ers For each possible solution, a likelihood index was calculated as the product of the probability of success and the probability of adoption (Table 21) The potential suppliers for each of the solutions were also identified (Annex 2) Future interventions in the m aize sector should focus on those problem s addressable by research and developm ent, whose alleviation will bring the m ost benefits to the largest num ber of poor people It is clear that the strongest intervention efforts should be directed to the upland m aize production agroecologies, and specifically to the northern upland where Table 21 Approaches ranked by likelihood of producing an impact on alleviating constraints to maize production in Vietnam Constraint Technology / Policy options Probability Probability Likelihood of success of adoption ratio UPLAND Unsustainable cultivation practices Lack of investment capital Research on integrated farm resource management 0.8 0.5 0.40 Promote available sustainable farming systems through extension 0.75 0.5 0.38 Research on sustainable crop management 0.6 0.4 0.24 Use organic fertilizer, bio-fertilizer 0.75 0.3 0.23 Easier access to formal credit for poor farmers 0.8 0.6 0.48 Subsidies for new seed, fertilizer to encourage poor farmers to adopt new/ improved technologies, high yield variety Lack of suitable varieties (short- 0.55 0.45 0.25 Encourage farmers to participate in credit groups 0.3 0.2 0.06 Develop short-duration, high yield varieties 0.7 0.55 0.39 duration and high yield varieties Test available short-duration varieties for adoption to local condition 0.7 0.5 0.35 fit with bio-ecological conditions Introduce available short-duration varieties, and appropriate cropping pattern to farmers 0.75 0.45 0.34 0.48 and cropping pattern) Poor market access and More investment for rural road systems 0.8 0.6 undeveloped transportation Encourage private sector to become involved in marketing systems in areas with poor market access 0.6 0.5 0.30 system Encourage animal producers to use locally produced products 0.6 0.4 0.24 Poor technology transfer system Decline in soil fertility Encourage farmers to raise horses, cattle for local transportation in mountainous areas 0.7 0.3 0.21 Reorient the focus of extension activity to the need of local farmers 0.8 0.7 0.56 Allocate more resources (budget, personnel) for extension activities, particularly in the uplands 0.8 0.5 0.40 Human resource development for extension centers 0.7 0.4 0.28 Strengthening the linkage between research and extension 0.7 0.4 0.28 Develop demonstration plots, farming models for technology transfer 0.8 0.2 0.16 Research on integrated soil fertility management (considering biophysical and socioeconomic conditions of resource-poor farmers) 0.8 0.45 0.36 Dissemination of available soil fertility management techniques, sustainable farming practices 0.7 0.5 0.35 0.7 0.4 0.28 Accelerate the process of providing land use right to upland farmers (to encourage them invest in soil fertility conservation and management, soil control) Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 33 Table 21 Approaches ranked by .cont’d Constraint Drought Technology / Policy options Probability Probability Likelihood of success of adoption ratio Research on organic fertilizer use and balanced use of chemical fertilizer 0.6 0.4 0.24 Bio-fertilizer research 0.5 0.4 0.20 Research on appropriate crop rotation 0.5 0.35 0.18 Strengthening farmers’ knowledge on effects of soil erosion and soil fertility loses, community education, 0.5 0.3 0.15 Research on intercropping with nitrogen fixing crops 0.4 0.3 0.12 Improving germplasm adapted to nutrient deficiencies and other edaphic stresses 0.3 0.4 0.12 Testing available early maturing high yield varieties for local conditions to avoiding drought; cropping systems research Develop early maturing variety to avoid drought 0.8 0.6 0.48 0.65 0.6 0.39 0.35 Introduce available short-duration varieties that are resistant to drought; introduce available Undeveloped input supply system farm-level drought management options 0.7 0.5 Develop drought tolerant variety (high yield) 0.4 0.75 0.30 Crop management research to mitigate drought effects (land preparation, planting time, crop management) 0.6 0.3 0.18 Improve irrigation system 0.35 0.3 0.11 0.6 0.6 0.36 0.4 0.2 0.08 0.42 Encourage private sector to become involved in input supply systems in mountainous, remote areas with poor market access (such as credit policy, subsidy for state enterprises, farmers organization or cooperatives involved in input supply system) Develop input supply system for areas with poor market access Inefficient use of fertilizer and pesticides (uplands) Research to increase efficiency of fertilizer use considering biophysical and socioeconomic 0.7 0.6 Increase farmer training on IPM, efficient use of fertilizer, pesticides, and integrated crop management conditions in the uplands 0.7 0.5 0.35 Pesticide research 0.6 0.4 0.24 Crop management research 0.7 0.3 0.21 Research on IPM for maize 0.35 0.3 0.11 Pest resistant varieties 0.3 0.3 0.09 Through private sector, provide training and information for local input dealers; encourage them to disseminate the information to farmers Lack of post-harvest facilities Research to improve farm level post-harvest facilities, particularly for poor farmers 0.4 0.2 0.08 0.6 0.5 0.30 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.3 0.2 0.06 Provide incentive to encourage various stakeholders to invest in agriculture processing, post-harvesting facilities (credit support, price policy) Research on varieties resistance to post-har vest storage pests Lack of technical information Improve extension services for farmers, particularly for remote upland villages (more resource allocation, demand driven extension program, appropriate extension approach) More technical information for farmers through mass media and other channels Lack of market information Sloping land and soil erosion 0.75 0.6 0.45 0.35 0.35 0.12 Develop extension network 0.6 0.2 0.12 Community based extension, farmer extension clubs 0.4 0.3 0.12 Enhance private sector involvement in marketing, exchange of good, products 0.5 0.6 0.30 Develop government supported market information system 0.6 0.3 0.18 Testing available sustainable cultivation practices and modify for adoption to site specific sloping land conditions 0.75 0.5 0.38 More extension activities to introduce appropriate soil erosion control measures and cultivation 0.7 0.4 0.28 Research on sloping land intercropping system, cropping pattern, and crop rotation practices for upland farmers 0.6 0.3 0.18 Research on soil control measures for sloping land 0.5 0.3 0.15 Research on appropriate land preparation (minimum/ reduced tillage), weeding practices for sloping land 0.5 0.25 0.13 Cropping systems research (use available short-duration varieties, appropriate cropping pattern) 0.7 0.4 0.28 Use short-duration varieties 0.5 0.3 0.15 LOWLAND Tight crop calendar Improve land preparation 0.4 0.2 0.08 High production cost Research to improve efficiency of input use 0.7 0.5 0.35 Crop management research 0.5 0.3 0.15 Lack of technical information Improve extension services for farmers 0.75 0.55 0.41 More technical information for farmers through mass media and other channels 0.7 0.3 0.21 Develop extension network 0.65 0.3 0.20 Community based extension, farmers extension clubs 0.4 0.25 0.10 Research to increase efficiency of fertilizer use 0.75 0.6 0.45 Inefficient use of fertilizer and pesticides Increase farmer training on IPM, efficient use of fertilizer, pesticides, and integrated crop management 0.75 0.5 0.38 Pesticide research 0.6 0.45 0.27 Crop management research 0.7 0.3 0.21 Research on IPM for maize 0.4 0.4 0.16 Pest resistant varieties 0.3 0.35 0.11 0.3 0.3 0.09 Through private sector, provide training and information for local input dealers; encourage them to disseminate the information to farmers Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 34 there is the largest m aize area and a large num ber of rural poor A m odest effort should be directed to alleviating m aize production constraints in the lowland areas, concentrating on the northern lowland and the central highlands-central coast lowland agro-ecologies Interventions in the m aize sector need also consider the specific clim atic, biophysical, and socioeconom ic conditions of different m aize production system s in the country These interventions could be grouped into technology research and developm ent (on varieties, cropping system s, soil erosion and soil fertility issues, pest control), technology dissem ination, input supply and m arketing, and policy developm ent Most constraints to m aize production in Vietnam can best be addressed by a com bination of all these Resea rch a nd Technology Developm ent Public sector efforts in m aize research should address the following constraints to m aize production: • Unsustainable cultivation practices; • Lack of varieties suitable to specific bio-ecological conditions and farm er-preferred cropping patterns; • Declining soil fertility; • Inefficient use of fertilizer and pesticides; • Soil erosion, and • Drought To effectively alleviate these constraints, both variety developm ent and crop m anagem ent research need to be im plem ented in an integrated approach There is a need for location-specific m aize technologies, especially for m arginal upland m aize production system s and resource-poor farm ers High levels of public sector investm ent in varietal research and developm ent will help address variety-related m aize production constraints in Vietnam The breeding of short-duration/ high-yielding varieties that will resist drought and fit into the tight cropping calendar will aid upland and lowland farm ers Long-term research to develop im proved pest resistant germ plasm that is adapted to nutrient deficiencies and other stresses is also a priority Varietal developm ent for resistance to post-harvest storage pests is, however, not very im portant On the other hand, integrated far m resource and crop m anagem ent research for upland agro-ecologies can focus on m aking yield levels sustainable, and on reducing the negative environm ental consequences of intensification Cropping system s research that helps generate pr oductivity-enhancing, resource-conserving m aize cultivation practices for the m arginal upland areas is expected to have high benefits, both short- and longterm It can for one focus on testing available m aize technologies for adoption to specific local conditions This, together with the developm ent of short-duration varieties, will effectively addr ess the need for suitable varieties that fit the bio-ecological and socioeconom ic patterns of the uplands The pr oblem of inefficient use of fertilizer is usually due to farm ers’ lack of technical knowledge as to how and when to apply it This study discovered, however, that recom m endations on the am ount and type of fertilizer to use are often m ade without fully considering the specific local soil and clim atic conditions, which can lead to unnecessary expense for the farm ers Incr easing the efficiency of fertilizer use would substantially reduce production costs, im prove farm incom e and m arket com petitiveness in the m aize sector Crop m anagem ent research can therefore provide farm ers with correct and appr opriate fertilizer application inform ation for different m aize pr oduction system s More research is also needed to addr ess the problem of declining soil fertility, possibly through intercropping with nitrogen-fixing crops, the use of organic fertilizers, chem ical fertilizers and bio-fertilizers, and adoption of appr opriate cropping patterns or crop rotations Another im portant issue in upland m aize production system s is how to r educe soil erosion and m aintain/ im prove soil fertility Cropping system s research can focus on the developm ent and dissem ination of integrated soil fertility m anagem ent technologies appr opriate for the biophysical and socioeconom ic conditions in these environm ents Other research ar eas dir ected at this problem include intercropping, cropping patterns, and crop rotations, as well as appropriate land preparation (m inim um / r educed tillage) and weeding technologies The expected positive im pacts from soil fertility and soil er osion control research can only be obtained through a long-term com m itm ent to research and extension activities Far m ers report that losses due to pests are currently not very high Increasing intensification in m ost m aize production ar eas could, however, increase pest incidence, which would in turn increase the am ount of pest-related production loss Inefficient use of pesticides was identified as a constraint to m aize pr oductivity growth; hence r esearch on integrated pest m anagem ent (IPM) is needed to provide farm ers with new technologies for controlling pests 35 Drought is a com m on problem in m ost upland areas, and its alleviation requires m ore testing of available early m aturing varieties for adaptation to local conditions, as well as research on related crop m anagem ent issues Transplanting m aize in the northern lowland agro-ecology is extrem ely labor intensive Managem ent practices that ease labor requirem ents for transplanting and weeding should be developed Efforts also need to be directed to the developm ent and m anagem ent of high quality protein m aize to increase the value of farm output Technology Dissem ina tion Most m aize-producing areas in Vietnam are widely planted to high-yielding m aize varieties, yet m any farm ers, particularly poor farm ers, still have little technological knowledge or only lim ited access to available im proved technologies like efficient cr op m anagem ent practices, soil fertility m anagem ent techniques, and soil erosion control m easures The im provem ent of the national extension service system will be critical for im proving m aize pr oductivity and efficiency by providing sufficient technical inform ation to farm ers through training and education Agricultural extension services m ust be redirected to m eet the real needs of local farm ers, for which a greater investm ent in personnel and hum an resource developm ent will be essential Farm ers can becom e better resource m anagers if local extension staff ar e better trained and inform ed as to the farm ers’ specific needs and worries, are m ore responsive, available, and m ore service-oriented, and are m ore appropriately rewarded for their services The prom otion of a participatory approach in extension services is crucial for im proving the efficiency of local extension services Providing farm ers with technical inform ation through m ass m edia and the extension network (including the com m unity base and farm er organizations) is a parallel com plem entary approach to the form al extension service system of the governm ent The linkages between research and extension should also be strengthened thr ough a closer collaboration am ong stakeholders such as research institutions, universities, extension system s, and farm er com m unities Understandably, there is a large and diverse dem and for extension services across agro-ecologies and locations, but the priority for extension services related to m aize production will be to focus on the constraints identified in this study The extension system ought to provide a wide range of technical inform ation and services covering topics such as sustainable farm ing system s and resource m anagem ent practices, available varieties that fit local biophysical and socioeconom ic conditions, soil fertility m anagem ent and soil erosion control techniques, farm -level drought m anagem ent options, efficient use of fertilizer and pesticides, and integrated crop m anagem ent Input Supply a nd O utput M a rk eting In recent years, increasing feed m aize dem and in Vietnam has led to increasing com m ercialization of m aize production in the upland agro-ecologies, for which m ore inputs are purchased and a larger share of farm outputs is m arketed Better m arketing infrastructures in the upland areas will support the expected increases in m arketable production Transportation is an essential link in m arketing farm produce, and m ore investm ent in rural infrastructures in the uplands will be essential These will also help the poorest of the poor have access to m arkets, and can encourage the private sector to becom e m ore involved in input and output m arketing It is also im portant to support farm ers with a tim ely, accurate flow of m arket price inform ation to help them m ake the best decisions in the production and m arketing of farm produce Lack of knowledge and inform ation about the m arket places m any sm all farm ers in rem ote areas at a disadvantage The lack of m arket inform ation could be addressed by the developm ent of a governm ent-supported m arket inform ation system , and by enhancing the m arketing and exchange of farm products The Role of Public a nd Priva te Sectors The public sector, including the national agriculture research centers, universities, provincial departm ents of agriculture and rural developm ent, and extension centers, have long experience in doing research and developm ent activities with OPVs and, in recent years, with hybrid m aize varieties The private sector was allowed to enter the m aize industry only in 1990/ 91 but has since becom e m ore active in hybrid m aize research, developm ent, and dissem ination In effectively alleviating m aize production constraints and realizing the recom m endations, it is im portant to identify the possible roles of the public and private sectors and areas where they could work together to m axim ize benefits to society 36 To alleviate constraints in the m aize sector, hum an resource developm ent in general and far m ers’ training and education in particular are also critical Over the last decades, the public sector in Vietnam , through its extension system and university education, significantly contributed to hum an resource developm ent for the m aize sector The public sector will continue to play a m ajor role in this direction Constraint prioritization results im ply that futur e interventions in the m aize sector will need to focus on upland m aize production agro-ecologies Many of these upland agro-ecologies, however, have poor m arket access, m aking the profit from investm ent in research and developm ent less attractive to the private sector For this reason, the public sector will continue to be the m ore im portant supplier of resear ch products and technology for farm ers in these areas, particularly poor farm ers Public sector efforts in variety developm ent will need to focus m ore on m aize production constraints that the private sector does not address Major efforts of the public sector in m aize research, particularly in crop m anagem ent research, should address priority constraints such as unsustainable cultivation practices, lack of varieties suitable to specific bio-ecological conditions and farm er-preferred cropping patterns, declining soil fertility, inefficient use of fertilizer and pesticides, soil erosion, and drought It is expected that the private sector will be m ore active in high-potential com m ercial m aize production areas There is, however, also a need for public sector support to encourage the private sector to be m ore active in subsistence and sem i-com m ercial m aize production areas, particularly in input supply and output m arketing, towards the sustainable com m ercialization of m aize production in these areas Increasing public and private sector collaboration is particularly im portant in addressing/ alleviating m aize production constraints The public sector would benefit from access to m aize technologies developed by the private sector, while the private sector would benefit from the public extension system for dissem inating new, im proved m aize technologies to farm ers Public and private sector collaboration and coordination would help lessen the duplication of R&D efforts, accelerate the delivery of new technologies to m aize farm ers, and prom ote the spillover of research results from favorable to less favorable m aize production areas Maize farm ers would also benefit from activities of NGOs and m ass organization in extension, credit, and com m unity-based resource m anagem ent activities Overall, for effectively alleviating and/ or elim inating priority pr oduction constraints in the m aize sector, there is a real need for an interdisciplinary, integrated and participatory research and developm ent approach that will involve scientists from various disciplines, extension workers, the private sector, NGOs, as well as the farm ing com m unity Institutiona l Policies As a large num ber of sm all far m ers still face the problem of lack of capital, policies should continue to help poor far m ers access form al credit Short-term seed and fertilizer subsidies should be m ade available to poor farm ers, which will encourage them to adopt new/ im pr oved m aize technologies to help increase their pr oductivity and farm incom e Credit policy should also focus on providing sufficient incentives to encourage various stakeholders (private sector, state enterprises, far m er organizations and cooperatives) to invest in agricultural processing operations like postharvesting facilities and to becom e m or e involved in input and output m arketing especially in m ountainous and rem ote areas with poor m arket access There is also an urgent need to grant land use rights especially to upland farm ers to encourage them to invest in soil fertility conservation and m anagem ent techniques, as well as in other sustainable agricultural production technologies More investm ent in infrastructur e developm ent, particularly the upgrading and developm ent of rural road system s in the uplands, is also needed Last but not least, m or e resources (budget, personnel) for extension activities should be allocated particularly to addr ess the problem of a poor technology transfer system in the uplands There is a need for a m ore effective and coordinated linkage between research and extension services, both at the national and local levels, in order to reduce unnecessary com petition and duplication of efforts and to im prove the cost effectiveness of research and extension activities Public funding to research and extension should to be linked to their perform ance 37 References General Statistical Office 2000 Statistical Data of Vietnam Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries 1975-2000 Statistical Publishing House, Hanoi _ 2000 Statistical data of Vietnam ’s SocioEconom y 1975-2000 Statistical Publishing House, Hanoi _ 2001 Statistical Yearbook, 2001 _ 2002 Population and socioeconom ic statistics data 1975-2001 Statistical publishing House, Hanoi Gerpacio, R.V (ed.) 2001 Im pact of Public- and Private-Sector Maize Breeding Research in Asia, 1966-1998 Mexico, D F.: CIMMYT Tran Hong Uy 1988 Maize developm ent in Vietnam In Proceedings of the Planning Workshop for Maize Research and Developm ent Project, FAO/ UNDP/ VIE/ 80/ 004 March 29-31, 1988 Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam 38 Annexes Annex Prioritization of maize production constraints in Vietnam Scientist ranking of constraint Yield gain associated w ith constraint alleviation (% ) Probability of success in finding solution to the constraint (% ) Region Production system Production constraint North North North North North LWC LWC LWC LWC LWC High production costs Tight cropping calendar Rat damage No available land Lack of suitable winter-crop varieties 12.5 12.5 5.0 6.0 10.0 0.60 0.65 0.40 0.15 0.45 North North North North North LWC LWC LWC UPSC UPSC Undeveloped irrigation system Lack of technology to plant maize on wet soil Typhoons and floods Sloping land and soil erosion Lack of knowledge on cultural practices 22.5 10.0 6.0 9.0 12.5 0.30 0.50 0.15 0.28 0.75 North North North North North UPSC UPSC UPSC UPSC UPSC Lack of investment capital Poor market access and undeveloped transport system Lack of suitable varieties Drought Lack of post-harvest facilities 17.5 12.5 20.0 25.0 12.5 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.50 North North North North CCH UPSC UPSC UPSC UPSC LWC Poor technology transfer system Undeveloped input supply system Lack of knowledge on pest management Rat damage Floods 10 11 15.0 10.0 7.5 5.0 27.5 0.70 0.75 0.35 0.23 0.13 CCH CCH CCH CCH CCH LWC LWC LWC LWC LWC Typhoons Western wind Lack of info on technology Inefficient fertilizer use Lack of knowledge on intensive cropping 20.5 14.0 20.0 27.0 30.0 0.12 0.12 0.52 0.52 0.47 CCH CCH CCH CCH CCH LWC LWC LWC LWC LWC Lack of investment capital Lack of short-duration varieties Lack of post-harvest facilities Stem borers Ear borer 10 11 28.5 23.2 17.2 12.4 10.5 0.54 0.32 0.46 0.27 0.27 CCH CCH CCH CCH CCH LWC LWC LWC LWC UPC Insects Rats Blight Lack of draft power Drought 12 13 14 15 8.8 9.5 11.0 9.2 33.0 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.40 0.34 CCH CCH CCH CCH UPC UPC UPC UPC Typhoons Western winds (dry, high temp winds) Lack of info on technology Inefficient use of fertilizers & pesticides 15.0 13.5 29.5 27.5 0.05 0.05 0.61 0.60 Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 Notes: is the highest priority and 25 is the lowest priority CCH= Central highland-central coast, SEMK= Southeast-Mekong Delta UPSC= upland semi-commercial maize production, UPC= upland commercial, LWC= lowland commercial 34 39 Annex Prioritization of .cont’d Scientist ranking of constraint Yield gain associated w ith constraint alleviation (% ) Probability of success in finding solution to the constraint (% ) Region Production system Production constraint CCH CCH CCH CCH CCH UPC UPC UPC UPC UPC Lack of investment capital Lack of post-harvest facilities Declining soil fertility Undeveloped infrastructure Lack of drought-tolerant varieties 10 27.5 18.2 23.0 14.5 25.0 0.61 0.54 0.75 0.28 0.41 CCH CCH CCH CCH CCH UPC UPC UPC UPC UPC Lack of inputs Stem borers Ear borers Blight Poor market access 11 12 13 14 15 23.0 15.5 14.2 14.3 16.0 0.59 0.46 0.42 0.43 0.37 CCH CCH CCH SEMK SEMK UPC UPC UPC LWC LWC Lack of draft power Localized flooding Rats Drought Floods 16 17 18 11.0 11.7 9.4 21.5 29.0 0.49 0.15 0.37 0.65 0.09 SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK LWC LWC LWC LWC LWC Lack of info on technology Lack of market information Inefficient use of fertilizers Lack of capital Lack of post-harvest facilities 25.5 17.5 22.0 22.5 17.0 0.53 0.45 0.52 0.55 0.43 SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK LWC LWC LWC LWC LWC Stem borers Ear borers Stalk rot Blight Rats 10 11 12 8.8 7.1 7.4 7.3 8.8 0.36 0.37 0.39 0.36 0.39 SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK LWC UPC UPC UPC UPC Poor soil Drought Lack of info on technology Uneven distribution of knowledge on maize cultivation Lack of market information 13 18.0 27.5 24.5 18.5 16.5 0.31 0.50 0.49 0.46 0.41 SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK UPC UPC UPC UPC UPC Lack of capital Declining soil fertility Lack of post-harvest facilities Stem borers Ear borer 23.5 22.5 14.0 9.5 7.3 0.51 0.70 0.33 0.33 0.35 SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK SEMK UPC UPC UPC UPC UPC Blight Rats Lack of draft power Lack of labor Floods 10 11 12 13 14 8.1 8.0 9.7 13.0 12.0 0.34 0.29 0.42 0.37 0.09 Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 Notes: is the highest priority and 25 is the lowest priority CCH= Central highland-central coast, SEMK= Southeast-Mekong Delta UPSC= upland semi-commercial maize production, UPC= upland commercial, LWC= lowland commercial 40 Annex Solutions ranked by likelihood of producing an impact on alleviating constraints to maize production and potential suppliers of solutions Constraint Solution Proba- Probability of bility of success adoption Likelihood ratio NM RI/ IAS X Possible suppliers of technology ExtenPrivate Prov Univ CIM M YT sion Policy sector NGO DARD M ass IARC media UPLAND Lack of 0.8 0.5 0.40 Promote available sustainable farming systems through extension 0.75 0.5 0.38 Research on sustainable crop management 0.6 0.4 0.24 X X Farming system research 0.75 0.3 0.23 X X Easier access to formal credit for poor farmers 0.8 0.6 0.48 X Subsidies for new seed, fertilizer to encourage poor farmers to adopt 0.55 0.45 0.25 X 0.3 0.2 0.06 0.7 0.55 0.39 X duration and high Test available short-duration varieties yield varieties to fit for adoption to local conditions 0.7 0.5 0.35 X bio-ecological conditions and 0.75 0.45 0.34 0.8 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.48 0.30 Encourage animal producers to use 0.6 0.4 0.24 X locally produced products Encourage farmers to raise horses, 0.7 0.3 0.21 X Reorient the focus of extension activity 0.8 0.7 0.56 X to the need of local farmers Allocate more resources (budget, 0.8 0.5 0.40 Human resource development for 0.7 0.4 0.28 extension centers Strengthen the linkage between 0.7 0.4 0.28 research and extension Develop demonstration plots, farming 0.8 0.2 0.16 0.8 0.45 0.36 0.7 0.5 0.35 0.7 0.4 0.28 0.6 0.4 0.24 knowledge on cultivation practices Lack of investment capital Research on integrated farm X X X resource management X X new/ improved technologies, high yield variety Encourage farmers to participate X in credit groups Lack of suitable varieties (short- cropping patterns) Poor market access and undeveloped transportation system Develop short-duration, high X yielding varieties Introduce available short-duration varieties, appropriate cropping X X pattern to farmers More investment in rural road systems Encourage private sector to become X X X involved in marketing systems in areas with poor market access cattle for local transportation in mountainous areas Poor technology transfer system X X personnel) for extension activities, particularly in the uplands X X X X X X X X X models for technology transfer Declining soil fertility Research on integrated soil fertility management (considering biophysical X X and socioeconomic conditions of resource-poor farmers) Dissemination of available soil fertility X management techniques, sustainable farming practices Accelerate the process of providing land use right to upland farmers X X (to encourage them to invest in soil fertility conservation and management, soil control) Research on organic fertilizer use and balanced use of chemical fertilizer X X Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 Note: NMRI= National Maize Research Institute, IAS= Institute for Agriculture Science, Univ= University, Extension= Extension centers, Prov DARD= Provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, IARC’s= International Agricultural Research Centers Probability of success: Probability of success in finding a solution to the constraint Probability of adoption: Probability of adoption of the new technology by farmers Likelihood ratio: Likelihood index is the product of probability of success and probability of adoption 41 Annex Solutions ranked by likelihood of cont’d Constraint Solution Proba- Probability of bility of success adoption Likelihood ratio NM RI/ IAS X X Possible suppliers of technology ExtenPrivate Prov Univ CIM M YT sion Policy sector NGO DARD Bio-fertilizer research Research on appropriate crop rotation 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.35 0.20 0.18 X X Strengthening farmers’ knowledge on effects of soil erosion and soil 0.5 0.3 0.15 Research on intercropping with nitrogen fixing crops 0.4 0.3 0.12 X Improving germplasm adapted to nutrient deficiencies and other edaphic stresses 0.3 0.4 0.12 X Testing available early maturing, high 0.8 0.6 0.48 X 0.65 0.6 0.39 X 0.7 0.5 0.35 Develop drought tolerant variety 0.4 0.75 0.30 X X (high yield) Crop management research to mitigate 0.6 0.3 0.18 X X 0.35 0.3 0.11 X 0.6 0.6 0.36 X Develop input supply system for areas with poor market access 0.4 0.2 0.08 X Research to increase efficiency of 0.7 0.6 0.42 0.7 0.5 0.35 M ass IARC media X X X X X fertility loses, community education Drought X X X X yielding varieties for local conditions to avoid drought; cropping systems research Develop early maturing variety X to avoid drought Introduce available short-duration varieties that are resistant to drought; X introduce available farm-level drought management options X drought effects (land preparation, planting time, crop management) Improve irrigation system Undeveloped input Encourage private sector to become supply system involved in input supply systems in X mountainous, remote areas with poor market access (such as credit policy, subsidy for state enterprises, farmer organizations or cooperatives involved in input supply system) Inefficient use of fertilizer and pesticides X X X fertilizer use considering biophysical and socioeconomic conditions in the uplands Increase farmer training on IPM, X efficient use of fertilizer, pesticides, and integrated crop management Pesticide research 0.6 0.4 0.24 Crop management research Research on IPM for maize 0.7 0.35 0.3 0.3 0.21 0.11 X X X Pest resistant varieties 0.3 0.3 0.09 Through private sector, provide training and information for local 0.4 0.2 0.08 0.6 0.5 0.30 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.3 0.2 0.06 X X X X X X X X X X X X input dealers; encourage them to disseminate the information to farmers Lack of post-harvest facilities Research to improve farm level X X post-harvest facilities, particularly for poor farmers Provide incentive to encourage various stakeholders to invest in agriculture X processing, post-harvesting facilities (credit support, price policy) Research on varieties resistant to X post-harvest storage pests Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 Note: NMRI= National Maize Research Institute, IAS= Institute for Agriculture Science, Univ= University, Extension= Extension centers, Prov DARD= Provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, IARC’s= International Agricultural Research Centers Probability of success: Probability of success in finding a solution to the constraint Probability of adoption: Probability of adoption of the new technology by farmers Likelihood ratio: Likelihood index is the product of probability of success and probability of adoption 42 Annex Solutions ranked by likelihood of cont’d Constraint Solution Lack of technical information Improve extension services for farmers, particularly in remote upland Proba- Probability of bility of success adoption Likelihood ratio NM RI/ IAS Possible suppliers of technology ExtenPrivate Prov Univ CIM M YT sion Policy sector NGO DARD X M ass IARC media 0.75 0.6 0.45 X X More technical information for farmers through mass media and other channels 0.35 0.35 0.12 X X Develop extension network Community based extension, farmer 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.12 0.12 X X X Enhance private sector involvement in marketing, exchange of goods, products 0.5 0.6 0.30 Develop government-supported market information system 0.6 0.3 0.18 Test available sustainable cultivation 0.75 0.5 0.38 0.7 0.4 0.28 0.6 0.3 0.18 X X X X Research on soil control measures 0.5 0.3 0.15 X X X X for sloping land Research on appropriate land preparation 0.5 0.25 0.13 X X X 0.7 0.4 0.28 X appropriate cropping pattern) Use short-duration varieties 0.5 0.3 0.15 X Improve land preparation 0.4 0.2 0.08 X Research to improve efficiency of input use 0.7 0.5 0.35 X X Crop management research 0.5 0.3 0.15 X X Improve extension services for farmers 0.75 0.55 0.41 More technical information for farmers 0.7 0.3 0.21 0.65 0.4 0.3 0.25 0.20 0.10 Research to increase efficiency of fertilizer use 0.75 0.6 0.45 Increase farmer training on IPM, efficient use of fertilizer, pesticides, 0.75 0.5 0.38 Pesticide research Crop management research 0.6 0.7 0.45 0.3 0.27 0.21 X X Research on IPM for maize Pest resistant varieties 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.35 0.16 0.11 X X X Through private sector, provide training 0.3 0.3 0.09 villages (more resource allocation, demand driven extension program, appropriate extension approach) X extension clubs Lack of market information Sloping land and soil erosion X X X X X X practices and adapt to site specific sloping land conditions More extension activities to introduce appropriate soil erosion control X measures and cultivation practices for upland farmers Research on sloping land intercropping system, cropping patterns, and crop rotation (minimum/ reduced tillage), weeding practices for sloping land LOWLAND Tight crop calendar High production costs Lack of technical information Cropping systems research (use available short-duration varieties, X X X X through mass media and other channels Develop extension network Community-based extension, X X X farmers extension clubs Inefficient use of fertilizer and pesticides X X X X and integrated crop management X X X X X X X and information for local input dealers; encourage them to disseminate the information to farmers Source: IFAD-CIMMYT-Vietnam National Maize R&D Priority Setting Workshop 2002 Note: NMRI= National Maize Research Institute, IAS= Institute for Agriculture Science, Univ= University, Extension= Extension centers, Prov DARD= Provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, IARC’s= International Agricultural Research Centers Probability of success: Probability of success in finding a solution to the constraint Probability of adoption: Probability of adoption of the new technology by farmers Likelihood ratio: Likelihood index is the product of probability of success and probability of adoption ISBN : -6 -1 2 -2 Apdo Po stal -6 , 6 0 Mexico , D.F., Mexico www.cimmyt.o rg ... supporting research and extension activities to expand hybrid m aize production) and technical and financial support from international organizations such as FAO and CIMMYT The increase in m aize production. .. begins with slashing and burning forest, bush or grassland before the onset of the m onsoon rains, and is continued with hand tools In contrast to upland agro-ecologies, land preparation in the... and m aintaining and im pr oving soil fertility Inform a tion Constra ints In general, m aize farm ers in com m ercial m aizeproducing areas have better access to inform ation than farm ers in