Salem health psychology & mental health: Volume I Ability tests — Community psychology potx

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Salem health : psychology and mental health / editor, Nancy A.. Publisher’s NoteSalem Health: Psychology and Mental Health is a valu-a

Volume I Ability tests — Community psychology

Editor

Nancy A Piotrowski, Ph.D.

Capella University University of California, Berkeley

SALEM PRESS Pasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey

Copyright © 1993, 2003, 2010, by Salem Press

All rights in this book are reserved No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any ner whatsoever or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without written permissionfrom the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles andreviews or in the copying of images deemed to be freely licensed or in the public domain For in-formation address the publisher, Salem Press, P.O Box 50062, Pasadena, California 91115

man-∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for nence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997)

Perma-Some of the updated and revised essays in this work originally appeared in Magill’s Encyclopedia

of Social Science: Psychology, edited by Nancy A Piotrowski, Ph.D (2003) and Magill’s Survey of Social Science: Psychology, edited by Frank N Magill (1993).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Salem health : psychology and mental health / editor, Nancy A Piotrowski

p cm

Includes bibliographical references and index

ISBN 978-1-58765-556-2 (set : alk paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-557-9 (vol 1 : alk paper) —ISBN 978-1-58765-558-6 (vol 2 : alk paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-559-3 (vol 3 : alk paper) —ISBN 978-1-58765-560-9 (vol 4 : alk paper) — ISBN 978-1-58765-561-6 (vol 5 : alk paper)

1 Psychology, Applied 2 Medicine and psychology I Piotrowski, Nancy A

BF636.S25 2010

150.3—dc22

2009024237First Printing

printed in the united states of america

Editor in Chief: Dawn P Dawson Editorial Director: Christina J Moose

Developmental Editor: Tracy Irons-Georges

Project Editor: Rowena Wildin Copy Editors: Constance Pollock

Christopher Rager

Editorial Assistant: Brett S Weisberg

Acquisitions Editor: Mark Rehn Photo Editor: Cynthia Breslin Beres Research Supervisor: Jeffry Jensen Production Editor: Joyce I Buchea Design and Graphics: James Hutson Layout: William Zimmerman

Publisher’s Note vii

Introduction ix

Contributors xiii

Complete List of Contents xxi

Ability tests 1

Abnormality: Biomedical models 6

Abnormality: Legal models 11

Abnormality: Psychological models 15

Achievement motivation 21

Addictive personality and behaviors 25

Adler, Alfred 29

Adlerian psychotherapy 30

Adolescence: Cognitive skills 35

Adolescence: Cross-cultural patterns 40

Adolescence: Sexuality 44

Adrenal gland 49

Advertising 52

Affiliation and friendship 56

Affiliation motive 61

African Americans and mental health 66

Ageism 69

Aggression 74

Aggression: Reduction and control 77

Aging: Cognitive changes 81

Aging: Physical changes 87

Aging: Theories 91

Agoraphobia and panic disorders 96

Air rage 100

Albee, George W 102

Alcohol dependence and abuse 103

Allport, Gordon 107

Altruism, cooperation, and empathy 109

Alzheimer’s disease 114

American Psychiatric Association 120

American Psychological Association 123

Amnesia and fugue 126

Analytic psychology: Jacques Lacan 130

Analytical psychology: Carl Jung 134

Analytical psychotherapy 138

Anger 142

Animal experimentation 145

Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa 150

Antianxiety medications 156

Antidepressant medications 158

Antipsychotic medications 160

Antisocial personality disorder 161

Anxiety disorders 166

Aphasias 171

Archetypes and the collective unconscious 176

Archival data 180

Artificial intelligence 184

Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders and mental health 188

Asperger syndrome 191

Assessment 195

Assisted living 198

Attachment and bonding in infancy and childhood 201

Attention 205

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder 209

Attitude-behavior consistency 214

Attitude formation and change 218

Attraction theories 222

Attributional biases 227

Autism 230

Automaticity 234

Aversion therapy 238

Avoidant personality disorder 239

Bandura, Albert 242

Battered woman syndrome 243

Beck, Aaron T 246

Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) 247

Bed-wetting 248

Behavior therapy 252

Behavioral assessment 257

Behavioral economics 261

Behavioral family therapy 265

Behaviorism 269

Bilingualism 273

Bilingualism and learning disabilities 276

Binet, Alfred 278

Biofeedback and relaxation 279

Bipolar disorder 283

Biracial heritage and mental health 288

Birth: Effects on physical development 290

Birth order and personality 295

Blau, Theodore H 298 v

Bobo doll experiment 299

Body dysmorphic disorder 301

Borderline personality disorder 304

Brain damage 306

Brain structure 312

Breuer, Josef 318

Brief therapy 320

Bronfenbrenner, Urie 322

Bruner, Jerome 323

Bullying 324

Bystander intervention 326

Caffeine and mental health 331

California Psychological Inventory (CPI) 333

Cancer and mental health 335

Cannon, Walter Bradford 338

Career and personnel testing 339

Career Occupational Preference System (COPS) 344

Career selection, development, and change 346

Case study methodologies 351

Causal attribution 354

Child abuse 358

Childhood disorders 363

Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) 369

Children’s mental health 371

Circadian rhythms 376

Clinical interviewing, testing, and observation 381

Coaching 385

Codependency 388

Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) 391

Cognitive ability: Gender differences 392

Cognitive behavior therapy 396

Cognitive development: Jean Piaget 401

Cognitive dissonance 405

Cognitive maps 409

Cognitive psychology 414

Cognitive social learning: Walter Mischel 420

Cognitive therapy 423

Collectivism 427

College entrance examinations 431

Community psychology 434 Category Index III

vi Psychology and Mental Health

Publisher’s Note

Salem Health: Psychology and Mental Health is a

valu-able addition to the Salem Health series, which

in-cludes Salem Health: Magill’s Medical Guide (4th

re-vised edition, 2008) and Salem Health: Cancer (2009).

The publication of this five-volume set represents a

substantial revision and update of Magill’s

Encyclope-dia of Social Science: Psychology (2003) The new

ency-clopedia covers not only the history of the field and

the core aspects of behaviorism, cognitive

psychol-ogy, and psychoanalytic psychology but also

diagno-ses, disorders, treatments, tests, notable people, and

issues, including many popular concepts Many of

the newly added essays address how culture,

ethnic-ity, and gender affect psychological theory and

be-liefs They cover topics such as multicultural

psychol-ogy and the effect of culture on diagnosis and look

at groups as divergent as Latinos, Asian Americans/

Pacific Islanders, and the gay, lesbian, bisexual, and

transgender communities They examine gender

dif-ferences, in particular gender roles and conflicts

Other essays examine important and developing

is-sues in psychology, such as multiple intelligences,

emotional intelligence, pharmaceuticals used in

treatment, genetics, and the effects of hope,

spiritu-ality, and social support

Of the 593 entries in this encyclopedia, 159 were

newly commissioned and 46 entries were

substan-tially revised Every previously published entry has

been edited anew and updated The “Sources for

Further Study” sections that conclude all entries

have been updated with the latest editions and most

recent scholarship This encyclopedia is fully

illus-trated with more than 150 photographs, 19

draw-ings, 16 graphs and figures, and 128 textual

side-bars, including lists of diagnostic criteria from the

DSM-IV-TR, the most recent version of the

Diagnos-tic and StatisDiagnos-tical Manual of Mental Disorders The

en-cyclopedia contains eight appendixes and three

in-dexes

Organization and Format

Entries in Salem Health: Psychology and Mental

Health range from one to eight pages in length.

Every entry begins with standard information

Where relevant, a date is provided for when theorieswere first presented, organizations were founded,and tests were designed The heading “Type of psy-chology” lists as many as apply from the followingcategories: biological bases of behavior, cognition,consciousness, developmental psychology, emotion,intelligence and intelligence testing, language, learn-ing, memory, motivation, multicultural psychology,origin and definition of psychology, personality, psy-chological methodologies, psychopathology, psycho-therapy, sensation and perception, social psychol-ogy, and stress The heading “Fields of study” lists asmany as apply from a list of sixty-one categories, in-cluding adolescence, adulthood, aggression, aging,anxiety disorders, attitudes and behavior, classic an-alytic themes and issues, coping, depression, groupprocesses, infancy and childhood, interpersonal re-lations, multicultural issues, physical motives, preju-dice and discrimination, problem solving, sexual dis-orders, sleep, substance-related issues, and thought.Biographical entries include an “Identity” line indi-cating nationality and discipline or specialty, as well

as birth/death date and place information For cal entries, an abstract briefly defines the subject,summarizing its importance to psychology, and “Keyconcepts” lists five to fifteen of the most importantissues to be discussed in the essay that follows.The text of each article offers a clear and concisediscussion of the topic An entry on a mental illnessaddresses its cause, diagnosis, treatment, and im-pact An entry on a theory or school examines its or-igin, history, and current status An entry on an or-ganization covers its history and functions An entry

topi-on a psychological test discusses its developmentand applications A biographical entry focuses onthe life, career, and contributions of the individual.Informative, descriptive subheadings divide the text

of longer essays All terminology is explained, andcontext is provided to make the information accessi-ble to general readers Every entry ends with a sec-tion “Sources for Further Study,” with annotationsthat discuss the content and value of these second-ary sources All essays are signed by the author andconclude with a list of cross-references to relatedvii

articles within Salem Health: Psychology and Mental

Health Each volume contains a table of contents

and complete list of contents to help the reader find

essays easily

Resources and Indexes

Volume 5 contains eight appendixes: a Glossary

of crucial terms with concise definitions; an

anno-tated general Bibliography of nonfiction works

organized by category; an annotated Web Site

Di-rectory for support groups and organizations; a

Mediagraphy discussing depictions of mental illness

and psychology as a field in films and television

se-ries; a list of Organizations and Support Groups

with contact information and a list of hot lines;

a Pharmaceutical List of generic and brand-name

drugs grouped by their uses; a Biographical List of

Psychologists with brief profiles of major figures;

and a list of Notable Court Cases that mark

impor-tant legal milestones in the history of psychology

A Complete List of Contents, with

cross-refer-ences, can be found at the beginning of each

vol-ume At the back of every volume is a Category

In-dex divided into sixty-one groups, including suchcategories as Conditioning, Developmental Psychol-ogy, Diagnosis, Experimentation, Memory, Men’sPsychology, Methodology, Nervous System, Organi-zations and Publications, People, Personality Dis-orders, Prosocial Behavior, Psychobiology, Schizo-phrenias, Sexuality, Sleep, Testing, Treatments, andWomen’s Psychology Following the Category Index

in Volume 5 are a Personages Index and a SubjectIndex

Acknowledgments

Salem Press would like to thank the editor, Nancy

A Piotrowski, Ph.D., of Capella University and theUniversity of California, Berkeley Her introduction,which can be found following the publisher’s note,provides insights into the history and future of thisdynamic field Salem Press also thanks the manycontributors to this encyclopedia—academiciansfrom psychology, medicine, and other disciplines inthe social and life sciences—for sharing their exper-tise with general readers A list of their names andaffiliations follows the Introduction

viiiPsychology and Mental Health

I would like to introduce this encyclopedia of

psy-chology by focusing on both twenty-first century

and more distant historical contexts, while

addition-ally highlighting the scope and depth of the work of

psychologists, their students, and their supporters

As reading these volumes will show, psychology is a

diverse and large field It is also a science I remind

readers that most of the research described in these

volumes is completed through the silent

contribu-tions of tens of thousands of volunteers as well as

nonhuman animal participants Without such

con-tributions, none of this knowledge would be

pos-sible

Historical Context

When I was first asked to assist with this project, I

thought that examining how far the field of

psychol-ogy had come since publication of similar volumes

by Salem Press would be insightful and fun

Rele-vant issues that came to mind immediately included

the evolution of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

of Mental Disorders (DSM) by the American

Psychiat-ric Association; the dot-com boom and bust; the

ex-plosion of interest and use of the Internet in social

interactions, the home, and the workplace; the

pro-liferation of reality television, including shows

in-volving treatment of addictions and obesity, physical

appearance, and health concerns; the growth of

en-vironmental psychology and the greening of

popu-lar culture; several national elections, both public

and professional, and how they illustrated affinity

toward different examples of leadership; and some

amazing discoveries in diverse areas of the field,

such as the “tend and befriend” stress response in

women, newly identified early signs of Alzheimer’s

disease, and advances in the areas of

psychopharma-cology applications and training Also of interest to

the field of psychology are current events such as the

terrorists attacks of September 11, 2001 (commonly

known as “9/11”) and its related social and

medi-cal sequelae, war, increased concerns about global

warming, and the economic downturn in the latter

years of the first decade of the twenty-first century

These events seemed to provoke increased interest

in psychological matters Psychology has been used

as a strategy to combat terrorism, in offensive vers in war scenarios, and as a valuable method oftreatment for issues such as post-traumatic stress dis-order, bereavement, substance use disorders, depres-sion, anxiety, sleeplessness, concentration difficul-ties, culture and communication, intergenerationalloss, the costs of hypervigilance, and the meanings

maneu-of intelligence, judgment, and prediction tionally, the wisdom of social and developmentalpsychologists has become more important, especiallywith regard to theories addressing the development

Addi-of differences in moral values, the use Addi-of violence as

a means of expression, and commitment to extremecauses Similarly, such events as the 2008 election ofBarack Obama as U.S president triggered renewedinterest in positive psychology, leadership styles, ne-gotiation, and the psychological aspects of social or-ganizing and influence In terms of economics andthe environment, renewed interest occurred in thepsychology of fear; the science of economically baseddecision-making at the individual, group, and sys-tems levels; and systems change related to the pro-motion of green economies

Perusing the table of contents, I am certain thatevents of the first decade of the twenty-first centuryaffected the choice of essays contained in this ency-clopedia I think it is good that the contributors tothis work came together to create these volumeswith such a unique historical context because, in do-ing so, the strength and value of the field of psychol-ogy becomes readily apparent For instance, by look-ing over the topics included in these volumes, it iseasy to remember that aspects of psychology arehelpful for promoting tolerance, prosocial behavior,and cooperation There are also theories that help

us to understand behavior by psychopaths and ers whose motivations seem incomprehensible Ef-fective methods of healing and prevention—as well

oth-as methods of learning, and relearning and, fully, of forgetting and forgiveness—have resultedfrom the continued advancement of psychology.Even more comforting, other sections in thesevolumes highlight things we have learned that re-main true and unchanged, even in the face of ter-rorist attacks, wars, and serious economic challenges.ix

thank-For instance, we know there are similarities to

hu-man facial expression for certain basic emotions—

such as fear, anger, happiness, sadness, and disgust—

and that these expressions offer bridges across the

diversity of culture, gender, and age Knowledge of

this allows for common understanding and

commu-nication We also know that, by and large, humans

as a group have evolved to be interdependent

Sim-ply stated, there is comfort in this kind of

knowl-edge in times of distress, and the hard work of

psy-chologists is to be recognized for such insights

What Psychology Does

Many different ideas may come to mind when

peo-ple hear the word “psychology.” For some, word

as-sociations may be first: psychic, psychedelic,

psy-chotic, psychogenic, psychosomatic, psychopath—

words that have associations to psychology in one

way or another Others might think of concepts,

such as the psyche, referring to the self and the

soul Some may think of “getting psyched,” or

pre-pared for action; “psyched up” has a positive

conno-tation, “psyched out” has a negative one Some may

think about the classic 1960 film Psycho, starring

An-thony Perkins, a story about a murderous man that

sadly added stigma to the tragedy of mental illness

and suffering by inadvertently reinforcing

stereo-types of the mentally ill as violent and dangerous

in-dividuals

When people think of psychology, they often

think of clinicians, such as those portrayed on

televi-sion and in films or heard on the radio—people

who work with or otherwise counsel the troubled

and mentally ill Ideas about Sigmund Freud and

his theories of the id, ego, and superego are also

common associations with the field Still others

pon-der whether psychology is really about

conscious-ness, the mind, psyche, or brain and wonder how

these entities are different and similar Somewhat

less frequently, people might think not about

hu-man aspects of psychology but instead about rats

running mazes, pigeons operating machinery,

mon-keys using sign language, dogs salivating and bells

ringing, and even ducks’ and other animals’ mating

habits A few people might see psychology as related

to machines: Psychology is certainly involved in the

design of artificial-intelligence systems and in the

in-terface shared between humans and machines, such

as when hands type on a computer, fly a plane, or

perform microsurgery with the use of virtual

reality-type cameras All these examples reflect psychologyand its research

What people think of when they hear the word

“psychology” can vary widely because of personal perience For some, their first exposure to the termmay be through an elective course taken in highschool or college Others may first encounter it intheir jobs, when they learn that there may be busi-ness value in considering psychological angles to ad-vertising, product development, sales, or businessorganization management Similarly, others maylearn about psychology in careers such as medicine

ex-or law, finding that it can enhance perfex-ormance

or improve communication with clients, colleagues,and trainees Artists might approach the field as ameans of learning more about creativity and how

to foster it Some may come to know psychologythrough a personal or family crisis, possibly throughexposure to a counselor or self-help book Othersmay learn about the concept through films, songs,current events, or advertising portraying psychologi-cal principles or themes

Most commonly, though, psychology is recognized

as the study of human behavior The field is vanced by the work of many individuals applying theprinciples of psychology in diverse settings for thepurposes of teaching, research, clinical work, orga-nizational management, administration, advocacy,data analysis, and consultation Psychologists work

ad-in many different settad-ings, such as universities, leges, clinics, forensics units, the armed services, so-cial service agencies, hospitals, research groups, lab-oratories, government bodies, businesses, wildernessareas, and even outer space The work of psycholo-gists has far-reaching effects for diverse peoples and

col-in diverse settcol-ings, contributcol-ing much col-in terms ofpractical solutions to both the large and the smallquestions of daily life

Psychology has deep roots in applications related

to military defense, medicine, and teaching In terms

of military defense, in the early 1900’s, the U.S ernment utilized psychology to assist with organiza-tional decisions, determining job assignments viathe development of intelligence-testing strategies

gov-As a result of creating ways of ranking soldiers for signment from very basic to very complex work tasks,the U.S government used psychology to increase ef-ficiency Principles of psychology are also useful forthe military in terms of fostering cohesion amongsoldiers, training and teaching them in an efficientx

as-Psychology and Mental Health

manner, and helping soldiers and their families deal

with the stresses of active military duty Additionally,

the field has made contributions to understanding

the psychological aspects of warfare, such as

per-suading one’s enemies to provide information and

debriefing those who have been prisoners of war

The roots of psychology in medicine are obvious

Basic applications began as treatment for those who

were considered ill, feebleminded, or possessed by

spirits With regard to spirituality, a strong historical

connection exists between psychology and religion,

especially in terms of healing This link spans at

least from William James’s classic book The Varieties

of Religious Experience (1902) to modern-day efforts

in the field that examine spirituality as it relates to

illness, healing, diagnosis, resilience against stress,

and various types of group support Historically,

those not cured by other methods of medicine were

usually sent to healers of the mind and spirit At

some point, psychologists were enlisted to help

count and categorize those individuals unaided by

traditional medicine As the field of psychology

de-veloped, methods such as behavioral pharmacology

grew in prominence because of the discovery of new

drugs to treat mental disorders Later, the effect of

psychology in the treatment and prevention of

stress-related, lifestyle-related, chronic, and

termi-nal health problems became noteworthy As

exam-ples, psychological interventions related to stress

management have been found useful for preventing

heart disease and stroke Obesity is often treated

with behavioral interventions designed to modify

lifestyle from a biopsychosocial perspective Chronic

pain is often addressed with cognitive interventions

for pain perception and management Even

condi-tions such as cancer may be better managed with

psychological interventions such as group support,

family therapy, and mood-enhancing mediations that

facilitate adherence to medical interventions for the

body

With regard to teaching, psychology has played a

large role in the structure and design of academic

settings, the development of educational curricula,

achievement and intelligence testing, and career

advisement and placement Psychology has also

touched practices such as preschool for young

chil-dren, the learning of new career skills later in life,

retraining after injuries to the body or brain, and

behavioral learning (such as how one might learn

to shoot a basketball or play the piano)

Further-more, studies have examined Internet-based ing and how it differs from face-to-face learning.Some of the questions pursued are whether onlinelearning formats can be effective and whether thesocialization aspects of learning can take place on-line

learn-In the United States, psychology has gained afoothold in government; psychologists are electedand appointed to public offices and serve in high-level decision-making bodies One example is theplacement of psychologists in the National Insti-tutes of Health (NIH), a fact which has provided anopportunity to influence government spending re-lated to research, health care, and problem preven-tion on many fronts In 1995, an office was estab-lished in the NIH called the Office of Behavioraland Social Science Research, with a designated role

of advancing behavioral-science knowledge and plications in the activities fostered and otherwisesupported by the NIH

ap-As these many examples illustrate, psychologyhas become a diverse field In the future, the role ofpsychology in the workplace and in internationalcommunications and relationships will expand No-table growth has been seen, for instance, in thenumbers of studies examining cultural differencesamong groups defined in terms of age, gender, eth-nicity, race, sexual orientation, socioeconomic sta-tus, and other markers of culture Pick virtually anyarea of psychological study since the middle of thetwentieth century and look at the number of refer-ences for cultural variation or differences; it will beeasy to spot a trend of increasing publications eachyear This trend has been inspired by a desire to cre-ate better understanding among different culturesand to assist efforts in providing more culturally ap-propriate and culturally sensitive training, educa-tion, and medical care No doubt, this area of studywill increase in importance as the field of psychol-ogy continues to evolve and as humans, as a group,continue to understand the ideas of conflict and co-operation as the world population increases

I hope that these volumes on psychology allowthe diversity and capability of this vibrant and valu-able field to shine I also hope that this encyclope-dia encourages its readers to be inspired, curious,and mindful observers of human behavior, as there

is much to be learned

Nancy A Piotrowski, Ph.D Capella University and University of California, Berkeley

xiIntroduction

Buffie Longmire Avital

National Development and Research Institutes, Inc., and Public Health Solutions

xiii

Eastern Oregon University

Patricia Stanfill Edens

Carolyn Zerbe Enns

Nicholls State University

Karen Anding Fontenot

Louisiana State University

Peter C Hill

Grove City College

Robert A Hock

Xavier University

David Wason Hollar, Jr

Rockingham Community College

Appalachian State University

Thomas Tandy Lewis

St Cloud State University

Martha Oehmke Loustaunau

New Mexico State University

Nancy E Macdonald

University of South Carolina at

Sumter

David S McDougal

Plymouth State College of the

University System of New

Hampshire

Salvador Macias III

University of South Carolina

Kenmore, New York

Muhammad Usman Majeed

Rockville Centre, New York

Robin Kamienny Montvilo

Rhode Island College

Colorado State University-Lamar

Elizabeth M McGhee Nelson

Christian Brothers University

Mt Vernon Nazarene College

Paul August Rentz

South Dakota State University

Chestnut Hill College

Rebecca Lovell Scott

College of Health Sciences

Azusa Pacific University

Sharon Wallace Stark

Glenn Ellen Starr Stilling

Appalachian State University

College of Saint Benedict/

Saint John’s University

Xavier University of Louisiana

Mary Moore Vandendorpe

Murray State University

Jennifer A Sanders Wann

Point Park College

George I Whitehead III

Salisbury State University

Complete List of Contents

Abnormality: Biomedical models 6

Abnormality: Legal models 11

Abnormality: Psychological models 15

Achievement motivation 21

Addictive personality and behaviors 25

ADHD See Attention-deficit hyperactivity

disorder

Adler, Alfred 29

Adlerian psychotherapy 30

Adolescence: Cognitive skills 35

Adolescence: Cross-cultural patterns 40

Aggression: Reduction and control 77

Aging: Cognitive changes 81

Aging: Physical changes 87

Aging: Theories 91

Agoraphobia and panic disorders 96

Air rage 100

Alaskan natives See Native Americans/

Alaskan Natives and mental health

American Indians See Native Americans/

Alaskan Natives and mental health

American Psychiatric Association 120

American Psychological Association 123Amnesia and fugue 126Analytic psychology: Jacques Lacan 130Analytical psychology: Carl Jung 134Analytical psychotherapy 138Anger 142Animal experimentation 145Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa 150Antianxiety medications 156Antidepressant medications 158Antipsychotic medications 160Antisocial personality disorder 161Anxiety disorders 166

APA See American Psychiatric Association,

American Psychological AssociationAphasias 171Archetypes and the collective unconscious 176Archival data 180Artificial intelligence 184Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders and

mental health 188Asperger syndrome 191Assessment 195Assisted living 198Attachment and bonding in infancy and

childhood 201Attention 205Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder 209Attitude-behavior consistency 214Attitude formation and change 218Attraction theories 222Attributional biases 227Autism 230Automaticity 234

Aversion, taste See Taste aversion

Aversion therapy 238Avoidant personality disorder 239Bandura, Albert 242Battered woman syndrome 243Beck, Aaron T 246Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) 247xxi

Biracial heritage and mental health 288

Birth: Effects on physical development 290

Birth order and personality 295

Bisexual mental health See Gay, lesbian,

bisexual, and transgender mental health

Blacks See African Americans and mental

health

Blau, Theodore H 298

Bobo doll experiment 299

Body dysmorphic disorder 301

Bonding See Attachment and bonding in

infancy and childhood

Borderline personality disorder 304

Caffeine and mental health 331

California Psychological Inventory (CPI) 333

Cancer and mental health 335Cannon, Walter Bradford 338Career and personnel testing 339Career Occupational Preference

System (COPS) 344Career selection, development, and

change 346Case study methodologies 351Causal attribution 354

CDI See Children’s Depression Inventory

(CDI)Child abuse 358Childhood disorders 363Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) 369Children’s mental health 371Circadian rhythms 376

Classical conditioning See Pavlovian

conditioningClinical interviewing, testing, andobservation 381Coaching 385Codependency 388Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) 391Cognitive ability: Gender differences 392Cognitive behavior therapy 396Cognitive development: Jean Piaget 401Cognitive dissonance 405Cognitive maps 409Cognitive psychology 414Cognitive social learning: Walter Mischel 420Cognitive therapy 423

Collective unconscious See Archetypes and

the collective unconsciousCollectivism 427College entrance examinations 431Community psychology 434Category Index III

Volume 2

Contents xxxvii

Complete List of Contents xxxix

Comorbidity 439

Competency See Incompetency

Competition See Cooperation, competition, and

negotiation

Complex experimental designs 442Computer and Internet use and mental

health 446Computer models of cognition 448Concept formation 451Conditioning 455Conduct disorder 461xxii

Psychology and Mental Health

Coping: Chronic illness 490

Coping: Social support 495

Coping: Strategies 500

Coping: Terminal illness 504

COPS See Career Occupational Preference

Death and dying 541

Deception and lying 545

Depth and motion perception 572

Desensitization, systematic See Systematic

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) 599

Dialectical behavioral therapy 602

Disabilities, developmental See

Developmental disabilitiesDisaster psychology 604

Diseases, stress-related See Stress-related

diseasesDissociative disorders 609

Dissociative identity disorder See Multiple

DSM See Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders (DSM)

Dyslexia 636Eating disorders 640Ebbinghaus, Hermann 645Ecological psychology 646

Economics, behavioral See Behavioral

economicsEducational psychology 649Ego defense mechanisms 652Ego psychology: Erik H Erikson 658Ego, superego, and id 664Elder abuse 666Elders’ mental health 669Elimination disorders 674Ellis, Albert 676Emotional expression 677Emotional intelligence 681Emotions 683

Empathy See Altruism, cooperation, and

empathyEncoding 687Endocrine system 690Endorphins 695

Enuresis See Bed-wetting

Environmental factors and mental health 699Environmental psychology 702xxiii

Complete List of Contents

Environmental toxicology and mental

Experimentation: Independent, dependent,

and control variables 733

Extroverts See Introverts and extroverts

Eye movement desensitization and

Family life: Adult issues 752

Family life: Children’s issues 756

Family systems theory 759

Family therapy, behavioral See Behavioral

Field theory: Kurt Lewin 781

Fields of specialization See Psychology: Fields of

Friendship See Affiliation and friendship

Fromm, Erich 806

Fugue See Amnesia and fugue Functionalism See Structuralism and

functionalismGambling 808Games and mental health 810

GATB See General Aptitude Test Battery

Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendermental health 813Gender differences 817Gender identity disorder 820Gender identity formation 824Gender roles and gender role conflicts 827General adaptation syndrome 830General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) 834Generalized anxiety disorder 835Genetics and mental health 838Gesell, Arnold 842Gestalt therapy 843Giftedness 847Gilligan, Carol 851Gonads 852Grammar and speech 856Grieving 861Group decision making 864Group therapy 868Groups 872Guilt 877Habituation and sensitization 881Hall, G Stanley 885Hallucinations 886Hate crimes: Psychological causes and

effects 890Health insurance 892Health maintenance organizations 894Health psychology 895Category Index XXIX

xxivPsychology and Mental Health

Hispanics See Latinos and mental health

History See Psychology: History

Histrionic personality disorder 916

Homelessness: Psychological causes and

effects 918

Homosexuality 922

Hope and mental health 926

Hormones and behavior 928

Impulse control disorders 984

Impulses, inhibitory and excitatory See

Inhibitory and excitatory impulses

Intelligence, emotional See Emotional

intelligenceIntelligence quotient (IQ) 1027Intelligence tests 1028

Intelligences, multiple See Multiple

intelligencesInterest inventories 1033

International Classification of Diseases

(ICD) 1037Internet psychology 1039

Internet use See Computer and Internet

use and mental healthIntervention 1043Intimacy 1044Introverts and extroverts 1047

IQ See Intelligence quotient (IQ)

James, William 1050Jealousy 1051

Johnson, Virginia E See Masters, William H.,

and Virginia E JohnsonJung, Carl 1054Jungian psychology 1055Juvenile delinquency 1059Kelly, George A 1063Kinesthetic memory 1064Kinsey, Alfred 1067Kleptomania 1069Kohlberg, Lawrence 1070

KOIS See Kuder Occupational Interest

Survey (KOIS)Kraepelin, Emil 1071Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth 1072Kuder Occupational Interest Survey

(KOIS) 1074Lacan, Jacques 1076Language 1077Latinos and mental health 1085Law and psychology 1088Leadership 1092Learned helplessness 1097Learning 1100Learning disorders 1106xxv

Complete List of Contents

Lesbian mental health See Gay, lesbian,

bisexual, and transgender mental health

Masochism See Sadism and masochism

Masters, William H., and Virginia E

Meditation and relaxation 1152

Memories, repressed See Repressed

memories

Memory 1155

Memory: Animal research 1160

Memory: Empirical studies 1165

Memory: Physiology 1169

Memory: Sensory 1174

Memory storage 1180

Men’s mental health 1184

Mental health parity 1189

Mental health practitioners 1190

Mental illness: Historical concepts 1194

Mental retardation 1200

Midlife crisis 1205

Milgram experiment 1208

Miller, Neal E., and John Dollard 1210

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Modeling therapy See Observational

learning and modeling therapy

Motivation, work See Work motivation

Motor development 1240Multicultural psychology 1244Multiple intelligences 1246Multiple personality 1250Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen

syndrome by proxy 1253Murray, Henry A 1256Music, dance, and theater therapy 1257Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 1261Narcissistic personality disorder 1264Narcolepsy 1266National Institute of Mental Health 1270Native Americans/Alaskan Natives and

mental health 1271Nearsightedness and farsightedness 1273

Needs, hierarchy of See Hierarchy of needs Negotiation See Cooperation, competition,

and negotiationNervous system 1277

Networks, social See Social networks

Neurons 1280Neuropsychology 1284Neurotic disorders 1287Neurotransmitters 1291Nicotine dependence 1293

NIMH See National Institute of Mental

HealthNonverbal communication 1295Nutrition and mental health 1300Obesity 1304Observational learning and modeling

therapy 1309Observational methods 1314Obsessive-compulsive disorder 1317

OCD See Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Oedipus complex 1322Operant conditioning therapies 1324Optimal arousal theory 1328Organizational behavior and consulting 1332

Organizational psychology See Industrial and

organizational psychology

xxviPsychology and Mental Health

Pacific Islanders See Asian Americans/Pacific

Islanders and mental health

Pain 1335

Pain management 1338

Panic attacks 1343

Paranoia 1346

Paraphilias See Sexual variants and paraphilias

Parental alienation syndrome 1349Category Index LV

Personology: Henry A Murray 1406

Pervasive developmental disorders 1410

Philosophy and psychology 1415

Pressure See Touch and pressure

Problem-solving stages 1467Problem-solving strategies 1470Profiling 1474Projection 1477Psychoanalysis 1481Psychoanalytic psychology 1487Psychoanalytic psychology and personality:

Sigmund Freud 1491Psychobiology 1495Psychology: Definition 1500Psychology: Fields of specialization 1504Psychology: History 1509Psychopathology 1517Psychopharmacology 1523Psychosexual development 1528Psychosomatic disorders 1532Psychosurgery 1537Psychotherapy: Children 1541Psychotherapy: Effectiveness 1546Psychotherapy: Goals and techniques 1551Psychotherapy: Historical approaches 1554Psychotic disorders 1559

PTSD See Post-traumatic stress disorder

Punishment 1563Qualitative research 1567Quality of life 1570Quasi-experimental designs 1572Race and intelligence 1578Racism 1583Radical behaviorism: B F Skinner 1587Rape and sexual assault 1591Rational emotive therapy 1595Reactive attachment disorder 1600xxvii

Complete List of Contents

Reality therapy 1603

Reasoning See Logic and reasoning

Reasoning, deductive See Deductive reasoning

Reasoning, inductive See Inductive reasoning

SAD See Seasonal affective disorder

Sadism and masochism 1659

SAMHSA See Substance Abuse and Mental

Health Services Administration

Sampling 1662

Satir, Virginia 1666

Schemata, social See Social schemata

Schizoid personality disorder 1667

Schizophrenia: Background, types, and

symptoms 1670

Schizophrenia: High-risk children 1675

Schizophrenia: Theoretical explanations 1680

Schizotypal personality disorder 1685

Scientific methods 1688Seasonal affective disorder 1694Self 1699Self-actualization 1704Self-disclosure 1708Self-efficacy 1712Self-esteem 1715Self-help groups 1719Self-perception theory 1721Self-presentation 1725Seligman, Martin E P 1730Selye, Hans 1731Sensation and perception 1732Senses 1736

Sensitization See Habituation and

sensitizationSeparation and divorce: Adult issues 1740Separation and divorce: Children’s issues 1743Separation anxiety 1747Sex hormones and motivation 1750Sexism 1753

Sexual assault See Rape and sexual assault

Sexual behavior patterns 1757Sexual dysfunction 1761Sexual harassment: Psychological causes

and effects 1767Sexual variants and paraphilias 1770

Sexuality in the media See Violence and

sexuality in the mediaShock therapy 1775Short-term memory 1779Shyness 1783Sibling relationships 1785Signal detection theory 1789

SII See Strong Interest Inventory (SII)

Skinner, B F 1792Skinner box 1793Sleep 1796Category Index LXXXI

Volume 5

Contents lxxxix

Complete List of Contents xci

Sleep apnea 1803

Smell and taste 1805

Smoking See Nicotine dependence

Social identity theory 1810Social learning: Albert Bandura 1815Social networks 1819Social perception 1823xxviii

Psychology and Mental Health

Social psychological models:

Somatization See Hypochondriasis,

conversion, and somatization

Speech See Grammar and speech

Stanford prison experiment 1866

State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) 1869

Statistical significance tests 1870

Stepfamilies 1874

Stimulant medications 1877

Strategic family therapy 1880

Stress: Behavioral and psychological

responses 1884

Stress: Physiological responses 1890

Stress-related diseases 1894

Stress: Theories 1898

Strong Interest Inventory (SII) 1902

Structuralism and functionalism 1904

Suicide, teenage See Teenage suicide

Sullivan, Harry Stack 1925

Superego See Ego, superego, and id

effects 1968Testing: Historical perspectives 1971

Theater therapy See Music, dance, and

theater therapyThematic Apperception Test (TAT) 1975Thirst 1977Thorndike, Edward L 1979Thought: Inferential 1980Thought: Study and measurement 1984Thyroid gland 1988Tic disorders 1992Time-out 1996Tolman, Edward C 1998Touch and pressure 1999Tourette’s syndrome 2003

Training and development See Human

resource training and developmentTransactional analysis 2007

Transgender mental health See Gay, lesbian,

bisexual, and transgender mental healthTranstheoretical model 2011Transvestism 2013Type A behavior pattern 2015Violence and sexuality in the media 2020Violence by children and teenagers 2024Violence: Psychological causes and

effects 2027Virtual reality 2030Vision: Brightness and contrast 2034Vision: Color 2038Visual system 2041Watson, John B 2046Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-

Third Edition (WISC-III) 2047

WISC-III See Wechsler Intelligence Scale for

Children-Third Edition (WISC-III)Within-subject experimental designs 2050Women’s mental health 2054Women’s psychology: Carol Gilligan 2059Women’s psychology: Karen Horney 2064Women’s psychology: Sigmund Freud 2067Work motivation 2072Workforce reentry 2076Workplace issues and mental health 2078xxix

Complete List of Contents

Category Index CVIIPersonages Index CXXXISubject Index CXLI

xxxPsychology and Mental Health

Ability tests

Date: 1890’s forward

Type of psychology: Learning

Fields of study: Cognitive learning; intelligence

assessment

Ability testing assesses the capabilities of people,

typi-cally measuring qualities such as intelligence

Ex-actly what is measured and how, as well as what test

results mean, have been the subject of debate.

Key concepts

• ability

• intelligence

• intelligence quotient (IQ)

• nature versus nurture

• psychometrics

• testing

Introduction

Whatever intelligence may be, the first scientific

at-tempts to measure it were conducted by French

psy-chologist and physician Alfred Binet From 1894

until his death, Binet was director of the psychology

laboratory at the Sorbonne Between 1905 and 1911,

Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon devised a

series of tests that became the basis for tests in many

areas The Stanford, Herring, and Kuhlmann tests

are among the revisions to Binet and Simon’s tests

Binet, unlike many of his contemporaries in

psy-chology, was interested in how normal minds work,

rather than in mental illness It was his goal to

dis-cover inherent intelligence, apart from any

educa-tional influence

Binet came to develop his tests through

observa-tion of his daughters He was interested in how they

solved problems that he set for them Binet noted

the existence of individual differences and the fact

that not all thought processes use the same

opera-tional path Binet argued that lack of ability in

spe-cific fields was not a mental illness There were also,

he noted, different types of memory This discoveryled to his work with Simon on achievement levelsfor “normal” children

Binet’s first test, carried out in 1905, asked dren to follow commands, copy patterns, name ob-jects, and put things in order or arrange them prop-erly He administered the test to students in Paris.His standard was based on his data Thus, if 70 per-cent of a certain age group succeeded on a giventask, those who passed at that level were at that men-tal age level It was Binet who introduced the term

chil-“intelligence quotient,” or IQ IQ is the ratio ofmental age to chronological age, with 100 being av-erage For example, an eight-year-old who succeeds

on the ten-year-olds’ test would have an IQ of 10/8 ×

100, or 125 Soon there was a widespread asm for testing and finding IQ scores A number ofmeasures were introduced The United States Armyused tests to sort out recruits in World War I Thetests assessed general knowledge rather than ability

enthusi-on specific tasks

Binet’s tests required modifications The first, andperhaps most famous, was the Stanford-Binet test,developed in 1916 by Lewis Terman It was immedi-ately put to use by various educational, government,and other agencies This test is mainly based on ver-bal ability and uses an IQ Terman worked to over-come the limitations of the age-scale principle oftesting He wanted to measure the full range of in-telligence There were two major shortcomings ofBinet’s scales in measuring adult intelligence First,

an older person’s score became meaningless whendivided by his or her chronological age Terman as-signed the chronological age of fifteen to everyoneover sixteen Another major defect in Binet’s scaleswas the absence of test items to test and measurehigh intelligence Terman added such items, assign-ing them mental age levels up to twenty-two Thisenabled him to measure IQs of older children andyoung adults

1

There were additional revisions of the

Stanford-Binet test In 1937, for example, Terman and Maude

Merrill published a revision of the test based on the

same principles as the 1916 examination However,

they improved the selection of items and method of

standardization Merrill published another revision

in 1959 These revisions have found wide

accep-tance, also serving as models for other individual IQ

tests and as a means for checking their scales

The Wechsler scale, introduced in 1939, includes

both verbal and performance measures These scores

compare an individual’s intelligence with those of

others of the same age to yield an IQ score The

Wechsler-Bellevue adult scale uses a derived IQ to

measure the intelligence of people between the ages

of seven and seventy, comparing each person’s scores

with standards for his or her age group Wechsler

produced two other scales, the Wechsler Intelligence

Scale for Children, published in 1949, designed for

children age five to fifteen, and the Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale, published in 1955, for people

from sixteen to sixty-four, including a special

stan-dardization for people age sixty to seventy-five

Originally, IQ tests were individual tests, not

group tests However, as the military and other large

organizations became involved in testing, large-scale

tests were given Individual tests tend to be more

accurate, because an individual examiner is more

likely to note the mood of a test taker in a

one-to-one setting than in the more typical group setting

Individual tests are more likely to be administered

to those who are thought to be either gifted or

retarded Group tests are more common in

educa-tional and military settings Originally, all intelligence

tests were individual tests, meaning that they were

given in a one-to-one situation

There is a good deal of dispute regarding the

nature of intelligence and whether it can be

mea-sured in a quantitative fashion Additionally, since

the 1930’s, there have been a number of virulent

disputes regarding the role of genetics and

environ-ment in determining IQ, often termed the

nature-nurture debate Most psychologists concede that

because environments are never uniform and the

expression of genes is elastic, the argument for one

or the other element as the sole determination of

intelligence is somewhat flawed Thus, intelligence,

whatever it may be, is a function of both nature

and nurture, of environment and genetic makeup

Twin studies estimating environmental effects

put genetic factors pertaining to “intelligence” atsomewhere below 50 percent However, wide varia-tion exists according to the particular characteristic

of intelligence under study Indeed, later views of telligence hold that many different abilities make

in-up intelligence The question for those who seek tomeasure intelligence, the process of psychometrics,

is how to measure specific and general intelligence.Researchers note that there are many skills involved

in both academic and professional success For ample, spatial intelligence is related to success inmathematics, science, engineering, architecture, andrelated fields, while it is not as important in litera-ture or music

ex-Psychometrics

A number of theories of intelligence exist: logical measurement, often called psychometrics;cognitive psychology, the merger of cognitive psy-chology with conceptualism; and biologic science,which considers the neural bases of intelligence.Psychometric theories have been most concernedwith the quantification of intelligence and its parts.Psychometricians generally seek to understand thestructure of intelligence, that is, the forms it maytake and the relationship between any parts it mayhave These theories are tested through paper-and-pencil tests These tests include analogies, classifica-tions, and series completions

psycho-The psychological model on which these testsare based states that intelligence is made up of abil-ities that mental tests measure Each test score isbased on a weighted composite of scores taken fromthe underlying abilities The mathematical model

is additive and assumes that less of one type ofability can be compensated for by more of anotherability

Charles Spearman, who put forth the firstpsychometric theory, published his first major arti-cle on intelligence in 1904 Spearman noted thatpeople who do well on one mental ability test gener-ally do well on others and, conversely, those who dopoorly on one test tend to do poorly on others.Spearman’s factor analysis enabled him to posit thatthere are two major factors underlying intelligence.The first and more important factor is the “general

factor,” or g The second factor is that which is

spe-cifically related to each particular test Spearman

was not sure what g was, but he did posit that it was

“mental energy.”

L L Thurstone disagreed with both Spearman’s

theory and with his isolation of a single factor of

general intelligence Thurstone argued that

Spear-man’s misapplication of his factor method led him

to find just one factor, the g factor He argued that

there are seven primary mental abilities underlying

intelligence: verbal comprehension, verbal fluency,

number, spatial visualization, inductive reasoning,

memory, and perceptual speed

Psychologists such as Philip E Vernon and

Ray-mond B Cattell argued that in some senses both

Thurstone and Spearman were correct Their

rea-soning is that abilities are arranged in a hierarchy

General ability, or g, is at the summit The other

abilities relate to ever more specific tasks as a person

descends the hierarchy Cattell went on to suggest

that there are two major categories of abilities, fluid

and crystallized Fluid abilities, reasoning and

prob-lem solving, are measured by tests such as the

analo-gies, classifications, and series completions

Crystal-lized abilities, derived from fluid abilities, include

vocabulary, general information, and knowledge

about specific fields Most psychologists agreed that

a broader subdivision of abilities was needed than

was provided by Spearman, but not all of them

agreed that the subdivision should be hierarchical

Other psychologists disagreed with the hierarchical

ordering of abilities The structure-of-intellect

the-ory devised by J P Guilford, for example,

postu-lated 120 abilities He later increased the number to

150

In general, it was becoming obvious to many that

there were problems with psychometric theory The

number of factors had gone from 1 to more than

150 There was no satisfactory explanation given for

any of these factors that explained overall

intelli-gence

Twin Studies

Twin studies use two methods to measure the effect

of nature and nurture on overall intelligence The

first method examines identical twins reared apart,

and the second looks at the differences between

identical twins reared together and fraternal twins

reared together Identical, or monozygotic, twins

are not totally identical, because they have had

dif-ferent experiences and are unique social and

cul-tural products Fraternal twins are formed from two

different fertilized eggs, just as normal siblings are

Unrelated children reared together are also studied

Although most identical twins studied show a 50

to 80 percent genetic contribution to intelligence, acloser examination reveals identical pairs with up to

a twenty-point difference in IQ scores This occurswhen the environment is drastically different Thecloseness of most identical twins is a result of natureand nurture; that is, the twins being raised in similarsettings

It has been reasonably obvious that many of theskills measured by IQ tests can be taught just as anyother skills can be taught If these skills can betaught, then at least part of what is measured byability tests, including IQ tests, is learned and notinherent

Specific Ability Tests

Among the more common ability tests are the Schooland College Ability Test (SCAT) and the SequentialTests of Educational Progress (STEP) The SCATmeasures specific abilities in verbal and quantitativeareas It is used to make general, overall decisionsabout level and pace of instruction The SCAT fo-cuses on aptitude, not specific educational goals.The STEP battery measures actual achievement inreading, written language, and mathematics STEPmeasures actual mastery and is, therefore, useful inindicating skills a student is ready to master

Both SCAT and STEP testing can be used for grade-level or above-grade-level testing In-grade-level testing provides information compared withothers in the same grade, while above-grade-leveltesting indicates probable success or failure com-pared with those in higher grades

in-SCAT assesses both verbal and mathematical soning abilities, using verbal analogies and quantita-tive comparison items STEP mathematics computa-tion measures a broad variety of computationalskills, including operations (with whole numbers,fractions, and percentages) to evaluation of formu-las and manipulations with exponents STEP mathe-matics basic concepts measures knowledge of vari-ous concepts, including those involving numbersand operations; measurement and geometry; rela-tions, functions, and graphs; and proofs It also in-cludes knowledge of probability and statistics, math-ematical sentences, sets and mathematical systems,and application STEP reading measures the capac-ity to read and appreciate a multiplicity of writtenmaterials STEP English expression measures theaptitude to assess the accuracy and efficiency of sen-

tences by requiring the student to perceive mistakes

in grammar and usage or to decide among

reword-ings of sentences

The SAT Reasoning Test is a widely used aptitude

test that attempts to measure both intelligence and

ability to undertake college studies There are

ver-bal and mathematical components to the test The

mean score on each test is 500, and each has a

stan-dard deviation of 100 The test was stanstan-dardized on

a group of ten thousand students in 1941 However,

when scores dropped in the 1990’s, with a verbal

mean of 422 and a mathematical mean of 474, there

was a readjustment of means Educators attributed

these lower scores of the student population to

tele-vision and to deterioration in home and school

situ-ations

Controversies

IQ and other ability tests have been widely

criti-cized, especially since the 1960’s These

controver-sies have centered on the Eurocentric nature of the

tests; namely, they have been designed primarily

for use with white, middle-class children The tests,

therefore, have drawn fire from critics for being

culture-bound Minorities have seen them as unfair

to African Americans, Latinos, and members of other

minority groups However, attempts to create

cultur-ally neutral tests have failed, and the tests have

with-stood court challenges In Parents in Action on Special

Education (PASE) v Hannon (1980), a U.S District

Court case involving Chicago schools, it was settled

that the tests were not culturally biased and could be

used to place children in special education courses

These concerns over cultural bias, however, have

raised another, related issue That issue goes to the

heart of IQ testing and concerns exactly what the

tests measure Critics argue that the tests do not

measure mental abilities The tests, they say, do not

show how children arrive at their answers, only

whether they are right or wrong Knowing how a

child arrives at an answer would better allow

evalua-tors to gauge intelligence, for those who arrive at a

right answer by guessing are not necessarily more

intelligent than those who get the wrong answer but

whose reasoning is sound Additionally, people from

different cultural backgrounds have different but

equally valid ways of approaching problems

West-ernized tests do not take these skills into account

Moreover, there is still a debate concerning the

relative impact of nature and nurture on

intelli-gence Those who hold for the predominant role ofheredity have used comparative test results to arguefor the dominant role of genetic differences amongthe various ethnic groups In the early 1970’s, thepublished research of Nobel Prize-winning physicistWilliam Shockley of Stanford University and educa-tional psychologist Arthur R Jensen of the University

of California concluded that heredity accounts formost differences in intelligence among different ra-cial groups This conclusion caused a great contro-

versy, matched by the publication of The Bell Curve

(1994) by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray,which came to much the same conclusions: Intelli-gence is primarily inherited, and there are differentlevels of intelligence among races

Another controversy regards the tendency of mosttests to take a holistic approach to intelligence TheStanford-Binet test, for example, sees intelligence as

a unified trait In the minds of many critics, IQ testsare designed to measure a particular type of abilitydefined by the predominant class Tests are cultur-ally biased, so scores do not reflect an objectiveuniversal pattern of intelligence Intelligence, theyargue, is a social construct Guilford devised a 180-factor model of intelligence, which classified eachintellectual task according to three dimensions:content, mental operation, and product This the-ory is the predecessor to Howard Gardner’s theory

of multiple intelligence, developed since 1985.Because of the influence of those social scientistswho have argued for the influence of cultural differ-ences, the tests are not the only basis for evaluatingintellectual performance There is a much greaterawareness on the part of most psychologists of moti-vational and cultural factors in the role of develop-ment

Response to Criticism

Intelligence tests seek to measure intellectual tential by using novel items, forcing test takers tothink on the spot The point is to avoid tapping fac-tual knowledge It is understood by psychologiststhat people come from different backgrounds, so it

po-is difficult if not impossible to find items that are tally novel Therefore, test makers require test tak-ers to use relatively common knowledge It is impos-sible to control for all of a test taker’s priorknowledge Therefore, intelligence scores represent

to-a blend of potentito-al to-and knowledge

IQ tests have reliability correlations in the range

of 0.90 and above, which is higher than most other

psychological tests This fact does not mean that

variations in motivation or anxiety do not lead to

misleading scores IQ tests are also valid when used

to predict success in academic work They are,

there-fore, great predictors of school success, but they are

not good for predicting other types of success

Peo-ple have acquired the belief that these tests measure

a general sense of mental ability, when they actually

focus on abstract reasoning and verbal fluency, the

type of skills needed for academic success They do

not measure either social or practical intelligence

IQ tests do not stabilize until adulthood, and even

then, they can change There is a high correlation

between high IQ scores and being in a prestigious

occupation Specific success in any given occupation,

however, cannot predicted in a meaningful way

IQ tests not only are stable, reliable, and valid but

also predict academic success and occupational

sta-tus They are one good measure of giftedness and

can be used with measures of creativity to aid

recog-nition of this type of intelligence They can also be

used to identify which children should be placed in

remedial classes

Conclusion

It is essential to note that no psychological test

should be used in isolation, whether that test is

diag-nostic of psychological and behavioral problems or

of ability Each test result needs to be compared

with and used in conjunction with results from other

tests Trained psychologists need to evaluate the test

results in context, whether these are diagnostic tests,

intelligence tests, tests for evaluating emotional

de-pression, or personality tests

Much progress has been made since the era of

the dominance of psychometric theories Then, the

study of intelligence was dominated by

investiga-tions of individual differences in people’s test scores

Lee Cronbach, a major figure in testing, bewailed

the segregation of those who study individual

differ-ences and those who seek regularities in human

behavior He made his plea for a union of these

studies in an address to the American Psychological

Association in 1957 His call helped lead to the

de-velopment of cognitive theories of intelligence

Use of cognitive theories has aided in

interpret-ing the results of ability tests, for they give an

under-standing of the processes underlying intelligence

These processes allow an evaluator to understand

why someone may do poorly on various tests It maynot simply be a matter of poor reasoning, for exam-ple, that leads to poor performance on an analogiestest It may be that the student does not understandthe words in the analogies The different interpreta-tions may lead to different recommendations.Someone who is good at reasoning but does not un-derstand basic vocabulary requires an interventionthat is different from that needed for someone who

in a serial fashion There are a number of cognitivetheories of intelligence, but all of them assume amental process working on a mental representation

A number of cognitive theories of intelligencehave evolved Among them is that of Earl B Hunt,Nancy Frost, and Clifford E Lunneborg In 1973,they demonstrated that psychometrics and cognitivemodeling could be combined They started withtests that experimental psychologists used to studyperception, learning, and memory Individual dif-ferences in these tests were related to patterns of in-dividual differences in IQ scores They concludedthat the basic cognitive process could be the basiccomponents of intelligence

Other developments led psychologists to beginwith the psychometric tests themselves and to inves-tigate the cognitive components of the skills tested

on the tests When these basic components were lated, they could be evaluated and tested in isola-tion to compute their relationship with intelligence.This was done for information processing and com-puter modeling Computer modeling, such as that

iso-of Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, uses a ends analysis to determine how close a problem is to

means-a solution Newell means-and Simon proposed means-a genermeans-altheory of problem solving

There are a number of psychologists who holdthat information processing is parallel rather thanserial They argue that the brain processes informa-tion simultaneously, not in a serial fashion It hasproved difficult to construct ability tests to test thishypothesis Moreover, the fact that intelligence dif-fers from one culture to another, as Michael E Colehas argued, has been ignored in psychometric tests

Additionally, psychometric tests are not good

indica-tors of job performance

Sources for Further Study

Binet, Alfred, and Théodore Simon The Development

of Intelligence in Children 1916 Reprint Salem,

N.H.: Ayer, 1983 This volume includes reprints

of many of Binet’s articles on testing

Fish, Jefferson M., ed Race and Intelligence:

Sepa-rating Science from Myth Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence

Erlbaum, 2002 Examines data from many

disci-plines, including the natural sciences and social

sciences, to conclude that race and intelligence

are not linked

Herrnstein, Richard, and Charles Murray The Bell

Curve New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996

Con-troversial work on the innateness of IQ scores

and the inherent inferiority of entire groups of

people

Lynn, Richard The Global Bell Curve: Race, IQ, and

Inequality Worldwide Augusta, Ga.: Washington

Summit Publishers, 2008 An examination of the

bell curve theory and IQ worldwide

Minton, Henry L Lewis M Terman: Pioneer in

Psycho-logical Testing New York: New York University

Press, 1988 A biography of the author of the

Stanford-Binet test

Murdoch, Stephen IQ: A Smart History of a Failed

Idea Hoboken, N.J.: J Wiley & Sons, 2007 A

criti-cal assessment of IQ testing and the uses to which

it is put

Naglieri, Jack A., and Sam Goldstein, eds

Practitio-ner’s Guide to Assessing Intelligence and Achievement.

Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2009 Describes the theory

and practice related to a number of popular

in-telligence and achievement assessment tests

Plomin, Robert, et al Behavioral Genetics in the

Postgenomic Era Washington, D.C.: American

Psy-chological Association, 2003 The role of genetics

in IQ scores

Frank A Salamone

See also: Assessment; Binet, Alfred; Career and

personnel testing; Career Occupational Preference

System (COPS); Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT);

College entrance examinations; Creativity and

intelligence; Emotional intelligence; General

Apti-tude Test Battery (GATB); Human resource

train-ing and development; Intelligence; Intelligence

quotient (IQ); Intelligence tests; Interest

invento-ries; Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS);Multiple intelligences; Peabody Individual Achieve-ment Test (PIAT); Race and intelligence; Stanford-Binet test; Strong Interest Inventory (SII); Testing:Historical perspectives; Wechsler Intelligence Scalefor Children-Third Edition (WISC-III)

Abnormality

Biomedical models

Type of psychology: PsychopathologyField of study: Models of abnormality

Biomedical models of abnormality examine the roles

of medical, neurological, and biochemical factors

in creating psychological disturbances Psychologists have come to realize that many disturbances have a significant biomedical component or are, in some cases, primarily organic This had led to the develop- ment of more effective biomedical therapies, such as drug therapies, for these disorders.

or biopsychiatry A basic premise of biopsychiatry

is that psychiatric symptoms occur in many tions—some psychological and some medical.Inherent in this viewpoint is a different outlook

condi-on mental illness Faced with a patient who is gic, has lost his or her appetite, cannot sleep nor-mally, and feels sad, traditional psychotherapistsmay diagnose the patient as having one of the de-pressive disorders Usually, the diagnostic bias is thatthis illness is psychological in origin and calls fortreatment with psychotherapy Biopsychiatrists, how-

ever, see depression not as a diagnosis but as a

symp-tom of the patient’s condition The task of

diagnos-ing, of finding the underlying illness, remains to be

done

After examining the patient and performing a

battery of medical tests, the biopsychiatrist may also

conclude that the condition is a primary mood

dis-order Further tests may reveal whether it is caused

by life stresses, in which case psychotherapy is

ap-propriate, or by biochemical imbalances in the brain,

in which case drug therapy—perhaps in concert

with psychotherapy—is appropriate The medical

tests may indicate that the depression is secondary

to a medical condition, such as Addison’s disease or

cancer of the pancreas, in which case medical

treat-ment of the primary condition is needed

Physiological Bases of Psychiatric

Conditions

An important distinction must be made between

psychiatric conditions resulting from the

psycholog-ical stress of having a serious illness and psychiatric

conditions resulting from chemical imbalances or

endocrine disturbances produced by an illness For

example, the knowledge that a person has

pancrea-tic cancer can certainly lead to depression This is a

primary mood disorder that can be treated with

psy-chotherapy According to biopsychiatrist Mark Gold,

however, depression occurs secondarily to

pancrea-tic cancer in up to three-quarters of patients who

have the disease and may precede physical

symp-toms by many years In such a case, psychotherapy

not only would be pointless but also would actually

put the patient’s life at risk if it delayed diagnosis of

the underlying cancer

According to Gold, there are at least seventy-five

medical diseases that can produce psychiatric

symp-toms Among these are endocrine disorders,

includ-ing diseases of the thyroid, adrenal, and parathyroid

glands; disorders of the blood and cardiovascular

system; infectious diseases, such as hepatitis and

syphilis; vitamin deficiency diseases caused by

insuf-ficient niacin or folic acid; temporal-lobe and

psychomotor epilepsies; drug abuse and side effects

of prescription drugs; head injury; brain tumors

and other cancers; neurodegenerative diseases such

as Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, and Parkinson’s

dis-eases; multiple sclerosis; stroke; poisoning by toxic

chemicals, such as metals or insecticides; respiratory

disorders; and mineral imbalances

After medical illnesses are ruled out, the atric symptoms can be attributed to a primary psy-chological disorder This is not to say that biomedi-cal factors are unimportant Compelling evidenceindicates that the more severe psychotic disordersare caused by biochemical imbalances in the brain

psychi-Genetic Predispositions and Biochemical Imbalances

The evidence of genetic predispositions for phrenia, major depressive disorder, and bipolar dis-order is strong The function of genes is to regulatebiochemical activity within cells, which implies thatthese disorders are caused by biochemical abnor-malities

schizo-Research suggests that schizophrenia, in mostcases, results from an abnormality in the dopamineneurotransmitter system in the brain All drugs thateffectively treat schizophrenia block the action ofdopamine, and the more powerfully they do so, themore therapeutically effective they are Further-more, overdoses of drugs, such as amphetamines,that strongly stimulate the dopamine system oftencause a schizophrenia-like psychosis Finally, studiesshow that, in certain areas of the brain in schizo-phrenic patients, tissues are abnormally sensitive todopamine

In major depressive disorders, the biogenic aminetheory is strongly supported Biogenic amines, amongwhich are dopamine, norepinephrine, and seroto-nin, are neurotransmitters in the brain that are con-centrated in the limbic system, which regulates emo-tional responses Biogenic amines were originallyimplicated by the observation that drugs that depletethem in the brain, such as reserpine, frequentlycause depression, whereas drugs that stimulate them,such as amphetamines, cause euphoria Studies ofcerebrospinal fluid have revealed abnormalities inthe biochemical activity of these amines in somedepressed patients In many suicidally depressed pa-tients, for example, serotonin activity in the brain isunusually low In other depressed patients, norepi-nephrine or dopamine activity is deficient Thesepatients often respond well to antidepressant medi-cations, which increase the activity of the biogenicamine neurotransmitter systems

Less severe neurotic emotional disturbances mayalso have biochemical explanations in some patients.Research suggests that mild or moderate depres-sions often result from learned helplessness, a con-