INTRODUCTION
Rationale
It is undeniable that English is the most widely used language in every area in modern life English is considered as an important tool in communication in general and in specialized documents in specific These days, thanks to foreign investment capital, Vietnam owns a newly developed industry branch called footwear production The FW industry has thousands of big companies around the world, and Vietnam is becoming a big footwear exporter to Europe after only Italy and China It has gained a significant revenue in national economy in recent years
Along with the development of other products around the world, the share of experiences and technology of footwear industry among countries plays an important role Thus, translation of materials in this field between English and Vietnamese attracts more attention for linguistic researchers
However, translation in this field is always a challenging task The obvious difficulty is the problem of differences in English FW terms and Vietnamese ones
In other words, there are some existential differences between these two language systems of terminology This creates a challenge for many translators due to their lack of knowledge about footwear Therefore, Vietnamese translators only translate some popular footwear terms for workers or for those who work in this field
I conduct this research with two main purposes First, it helps translators gain more knowledge of translation theory to understand the original meaning and choose the most appropriate strategies for translation thoroughly Second, more importantly, the aim of the research is also to find out the ways of translation footwear terms which prove to be precise and flexible to make the translation between two languages English and Vietnam become standard footwear terms
Additionally, I decide to make this study and give some suggestions to improve the quality of translation of materials in the field of footwear.
Scope of the study
There are a number of English and Vietnamese footwear terms in many materials, such as: Internet, books and footwear documents This study focuses on the classification of typical English terms and Vietnamese equivalents in English – Vietnamese Dictionary of Leather and Footwear published in 2012 by Leather and Shoe Research Institute Simultaneously, it also finds out some translation strategies to deal with problems in translating English-Vietnamese footwear terms.
Aims of the study
This study is carried out with the following aims:
+To find out translation strategies used in translation of footwear terms to answer the research question: “What strategies are commonly used to translate FW terminologies from English in to Vietnamese?”
+ To provide some suggestions for translating FW terminology to achieve an exact translation based on the results of the study.
Methodology
To achieve the aims within the scope, the study is to make clear main research question:
What strategies are commonly used to translate FW terminologies from English in to Vietnamese?
The study will present a theoretical background of translation and terminology Next, it will collect typical English and Vietnamese FW terms from Dictionary and analyze their structural features In the process, the study will classify and compare English FW terms with Vietnamese After that, the study will define common strategies applied in the English-Vietnamese FW term translation
Some general research methods such as qualitative, quantitative will be applied to carry out the thesis Besides, contrastive analysis, and description which are usually used to study linguistics will be used The data for this study is collected through the procedure of critical analyzing, based on Newmark‟s methods and translation of Neologisms.
Organization of the thesis
The paper is divided into 5 chapters as below:
This chapter provides readers an overview of the study including the reason for choosing the topic, scope, aims, and its organization
Chapter 2: Theoretical Background &Literature Review
Theoretical background in the light of which the research matters is discussed in this chapter
This chapter mentions the reasons to choose the dictionary and provides the main methodology and procedure of data collection
This chapter presents analyses and discusses the results that the researcher found out from the collected data It also gives answer to the research questions
The chapter summarizes the overall study and suggests some forms of further studies on the field.
Definition of translation
Translation is an important activity in the modern world It attracts not only linguistics, professional translators but also many people in many special fields All of the definitions below have been discussed and presented by many professors from different perspectives and in chronological will help to comprehend exactly about the development and popularity of the concept “translation” According to Catford (1965, p.20) given a very simple definition that “translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (target language) With the same idea, Hartmann and Stock (1972, p.713) state that “translation is the placement of representation of a text in one language by a representation of another equivalent text in a second language” These concepts only focus on the textual materials or original sources
However, some philologists have a deep understanding about translation beside the textual replacement Meanings, semantic or syntactic are continuously remarked in the view of translation theories Translation is the expression in another language (or TL) of what has been expressed in another (SL), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences (Dubois 1973, cited in Bell, 1991) Nina and Taber
(1974, p.12) suggested that “translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”
In 1982, Wilss gave the detailed concept, it could combine all elements above
Translation is a procedure which leads from written SL text to an optimalequivalent TL text, and which requires the syntactic, semantic, and stylistic and text pragmatic comprehension by the original text More broadly, translation is a communicative process which takes place within a social context (Hatim and Mason, 1990).
Translation methods and strategies
Basing on the dynamic equivalence theory of Nida, Newmark proposed 8 translation methods which can be illustrated in the form of a flattened V diagram as follows:
Word-for-word translation Adaptation Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation Semantic translation Communicative translation
(Newmark, 1988, p 45) Newmark briefly explained these methods follow:
The translation is directly produced from the source text, at word level The word order is preserved, no context is considered when using this method
It is called loan translation or borrowing translation The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are translated singly, out of context
It attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures Some cultural words are translates directly by copying from the source text to the target text Thus, it preserves the grammatical abnormality and causes the difficulties for reader in TL
This method takes more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text than does faithful translation, compromising on „meaning‟ where appropriate so that assonance, word-lay or repetition jars in the finished version
In adaptation, the themes, characters, plots are preserved, and the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten This translation method is often used in poem, stories or plays translations
It is when the translator gets out of the limitations of the SL in terms of forms and expressions to produce a new translation This method is often used for songs translation
It reproduces the „message‟ of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original This method is highly effective for the translation of idiom
It attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original so that the readership finds it easier to understand Communicative translation is often used for translating a difficult document
(Newmark, 1988, p 45-47) Among these 8 methods of translation, communicative and semantic translations are the two major methods, and they are more frequently used for two main aims of translation, namely accuracy and economy
Apart from these methods, when concluding the chapter on translation methods in A Textbook of Translation, Newmark goes on to clarify five more translation methods:
Service translation : is translation from one‟s language of habitual use into another language
Plain prose translation : this is translation of poems and poetic drama Usually stanzas become paragraphs, prose punctuation is introduced, original metaphors and
SL culture retained, and no sound-effects are reproduced
Information translation : This conveys all the information in a non-literary text, sometimes rearranged in a more logical form, sometimes partially summarized, and not in the form of a paraphrase
Cognitive translation : This reproduces the information in a SL text converting the
SL grammar to its normal TL transpositions, normally reducing any figurative to literal language
Academic translation : This reduces an original SL text to an „elegant‟ idiomatic educated TL version which follows a literary register It irons out the expressiveness of a writer with modish colloquialisms
In addition, according to Larson (1984) translation is classified into two main types, namely form-based and meaning-based translation Form-based translation attempts to follow the form of Source Language and is known as literal translation, while meaning-based translation makes every effort to communicate the meaning of the SL text in the natural forms of the receptor language Such translation is called idiomatic translation
Larson (1984) stated that idiomatic translations use the natural forms of the receptor language both in the grammatical constructions and in the choices of lexical items A truly idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation It sounds like it was written originally in the receptor language Therefore, a good translator will try to translate idiomatically In practice, however, it is hard to consistently translate idiomatically or literally These translations are often a mixture of literal and idiomatic forms of language Translation then falls on a continuum from very literal, to literal, to modified literal, to near idiomatic, to idiomatic, and may fall, even more on the unduly free as displayed below
Figure 1 Translation as a continuum by Larson (1984, p.17) 2.2.2 Translation strategies
Krings (1986, p.18) defined translation strategy as "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a concrete translation task"
Moreover, Loescher (1991, p.8) defined translation strategy as "a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it." As it is stated in this definition, the notion of consciousness is significant in distinguishing strategies which are used by the learners or translators
Furthermore, Bell (1998) differentiated between global (those dealing with whole texts) and local (those dealing with text segments) strategies and confirms that this distinction results from various kinds of translation problems
Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) they changed the term “strategies” by
“procedures” and proposed seven procedures-oriented structurelistic Translators can choose from two methods of translating, namely direct, or literal translation and oblique translation Each of the methods, they present different procedures based on parallel categories (structural parallelism) and parallel concepts (meta- linguistic parallelism)
Direct (Literal translation) Indirect ( Oblique translation)
3 Literal translation 6 Total syntagmatic change/ Equivalence
To overcome a lacuna, usually a metalinguistic one (e.g a new technical process, an unknown concept), borrowing is the simplest of all translation methods
It would not even merit discussion in this context if translators did not occasionally need to use it in order to create a stylistic effect The decision to borrow a SL word or expression for introducing an element of local colour is a matter of style and consequently of the message
A calque is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression form of another, but then translates literally each of its elements The result is either a lexical calque or the syntactic structure of the TL, whilst introducing a new mode of expression; or a structural calque
Literal, or word for word, translation is the direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL text in which the translators‟ task is limited to observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL In principle, a literal translation is a unique solution which is reversible and complete in itself It is most common when translating between two languages of the same family, and even more so when they also share the same culture
The method called transposition involves replacing one word class with another without changing the meaning of the message Besides being a special translation procedure, transposition can also be applied within a language
Terminology
Many linguists and theorists study terminology in various aspects The study will present typical definitions and general features of terminology
Valeontis and Mantzari (2006, p.1) described “terminology has a two fold meaning: (1) it is the discipline concerned with the principles and methods governing the study of concepts and their designations (terms, names, symbols) in any subject field, and the job of collecting, processing, and managing relevant data and (2) the set of terms belonging to the special language of an individual subject field” In another word, a term, or terminology unit, is the name or designation of a concept in a particular subject field Backer (1998, p.261) pointed out the differences between words and terms that “Terms differ from words in that they are endowed with a special forms of reference, namely that they refer to discrete conceptual entities, properties, activities or relations which constitute the knowledge space of a particular subject field.” In Vietnam, a lot of research on vocabulary as well as terminology have been made by famous linguists such as Nguyen Van Tu,
Do Huu Chau, and Nguyen Thien Giap Nguyen Van Tu (1968) stated that terminology consists of fixed words or phrases which denote concepts of sciences, manufacturing fields, or culture and so on Similarly, Do Huu Chau (1998) said that terminology includes specialist words used within a scientific field, a profession or any technological field Besides, Nguyen Thien Giap (1999) defined it as a part of special lexis of a language It consists of fixed words or groups of words which accurately name concepts and subjects belonging to different specialized fields of human beings From the above-mentioned definitions, terminology can be considered fixed words or phrases which accurately denote concepts of particular subject fields
Based on the structural patterns, FW terms can be divided into two groups including one-word terms and above -word-level terms
2.3.3.1 One-word terms in English a One-word terms in the form of verb
Cement/ glue Coat Compress Cover Dye
Dán bằng keo Phủ lên Ép Bọc Nhuộm Xén Gấp Buộc dây giầy
A typical feature of these terms is that they can transfer; that is, they can appear either in the form of a verb or a noun and most of these one-verb terms have their nouns to be used as alternatives such as in the following examples:
Sự đục lỗ trang trí
Moreover, these verbs can go with one or two certain nouns to create the terms:
Coat a last Compress heels Cover heels Trim edge Fold edge of part Lace shoe
Phủ một lớp vào phom giầy Ép gót Bọc gót Xén mép Gấp mép chi tiết Buộc dây giầy b One-word terms in the form of noun Sub-footwear terms
Many of footwear terms are regularly used in the life, however, in this subject, they lose their normal senses and take a special meaning
For instance, the normal meaning of the word “reinforcement” is “the act of making something stronger” (sự tăng cường) meanwhile in footwear terms, its special meaning is “a piece lies in the parts of shoes and helps the shoes stronger” (một miếng nằm ở dưới các bộ phận của giầy và giúp đôi giầy cứng hơn)
Followings are some more examples of footwear terms:
Upper Waist Vamp Lining Unit
Mũ giầy/Mặt giầy Phần mang giầy Mũi giầy
Although these terms are very familiar because of the popular existing, they may make a hindrance and obstacle to translators without experience in this field
They only take on a special meaning in each concrete scientific field and require translators have a deep understanding about that subject
Each of the subject has intrinsic terms which create high- terms It is very important that the users having a large background of that subject may understand these terms Below are some of the frequently used high- footwear terms:
English terms Vietnamese terms Last
Lasting Suede Sole Tongue Nappa
Da lộn Đế giầy Chi tiết lưỡi gà
Da mềm c One-word terms in the form of an adjective
Unlike technical terms in the form of a verb, almost all the terms in the form of an adjective do not have their nouns to be used as alternatives:
English terms Vietnamese terms Asymmetrical
Dị thường Thực tế Chất bổ trợ
Besides, a highlight feature of these adjectives is that all of them usually unite with one or two certain nouns to form collocations, for examples:
Asymmetrical upper Abnormal foot Actual size Auxiliary syntan
Mũ giầy không đối xứng Chân dị dạng/dị thường
Cỡ thực tế Chất trợ thuộc tổng hợp d Eponyms derived from the names of shoes
It is remarkable that many famous shoes brands appearing in foreign countries, such as: Gibson, Nike, Luis, McKay, Moccasins, NewBalance, and Adidas These FW terms are used in Vietnamese without translating e FW acronyms
Some of footwear acronyms are used in English and applied directly in Vietnamese They are formed from the initial letters of words that create a term or a proper name For instance, PVC (polylvinyl chloride): nhựa PVC;
ISO (international standards organization): tổ chức tiêu chuẩn quốc tế; EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate): chất EVA; AAFA (American Alparrel & Footwear):
Hiệp hội các nhà sản xuất giầy dép, quần áo Hoa Kỳ
2.3.3.2 One word terms in Vietnamese
In Vietnamese, Footwear terms which are formed of one word mainly comprise a Noun or a Verb They are only hold a small proportion
One word terms in form of Noun
One word terms in form of Verb Ép Compress
Obviously, Footwear terms at one word in Vietnamese usually exist at one word terms in English
2.3.3.3 Above-word-level terms in English
Almost technical or scientific terms in general as well as FW terms in particular are formed by compounding In all the FW compound terms are collected, noun compounds appear in the form of nominal group as proposed by Mark Halliday (1985) make up the highest proportion
Footwear above -word -level terms in the form of nominal group
First of all, we have a brief theory of the experiential structure of the nominal group a Nominal group
According to Mark Halliday (1985), the Nominal Group structure contains the Thing called head noun, preceded by various items including Deitic, Numerative, Epithet, and Classifier and followed by Qualifier We can interpret the parts of nominal group structurally as illustration below:
All items of nominal group will be presented below:
Deictic: The deictic element indicates whether or not some specific subset of the
Thing is intended with such specific words as this, these, that, those, my, your, her, etc or non-specific like a, an, each, all, every, etc
Deictic Numerative Epithet 1 Epithet 2 Classifier Thing Qualifier
Those two Splendid Old electric trains with pantographs Determiner Numeral Adjective Adjective Adjective Noun Preposition+
Numerative: The numerative element shows some numerical feature of the subset either quantity (one, two, three…), or order (first, second, third…), either exact (one, two, three…) or inexact (few, little, several…)
Epithet: The Epithet indicates some quality of the subset This may be an objective property of the thing itself or it may be an expression of the speaker‟s subjective attitude towards it, for instance asymmetrical upper, hard rubber, real leather, etc
Classifier: The classifier indicates a particular subclass of the thing in question; it can be an adjective or a noun For instance, fabric boot, heel layer, foam rubber
Furthermore, verbs also appear in the nominal group and function as Epithet or Classifier in one of the two forms as following:
Present participle, V-ing such as ageing test or past participle, V-ed as in moulded heel
When these forms function as Epithet, they usually have the sense of the finite tense of which the present participle means „which is (was/will be)… ing‟, and the past participle means „which has (had/will have) been …ed
For examples: bending resistance (the resistance of something which is bending), punched toe-cap (toe-cap which has been punched)
Thing: The Thing is the semantic core of the nominal group, which may be common noun, proper noun, or personal noun For example: international law, strict liability, forced payment, etc
Qualifier: The Qualifier follows the Thing and characterizes it The qualifier can be a relative clause or a prepositional phrase For examples: anatomy of the shoe, inside of foot b Footwear terms in the form of nominal group
Based on the classification mentioned above, the FW terms collected might be classified in the form of nominal group with their sub-classes as follows:
METHODOLOGY
Reasons to choose the dictionary
The Viet Nam footwear industrial branch appeared in 1996, however, English-Vietnamese footwear materials are quite few Many English footwear documents are published and popularly used In 2007, the Leather and Footwear Research Institute proposed the topic "Research and Compilation of the English-
Vietnamese Footwear Terminology" The product of the topic is highly appreciated, but this term is only about 2000 words and still needs to be completed Therefore, it is only used as a reference and it has not been officially released In 2012, Ngo Dai Quang and his colleagues edited and complemented about 3000 new words This dictionary was registered and promulgated in the Institute's information page on the Internet As a result, this dictionary was chosen in the study; in detail, it sufficiently provides footwear terminology and has high reliability.
Methodology
In this study, qualitative approach is chosen to decide the way of collecting and analyzing data According to Denzin and Lincoln (1994), a qualitative research focuses on interpretation of phenomena in their natural settings to make sense in terms of the meanings people bring to these settings The qualitative research method involves data collection of personal experiences, introspection, and stories about life, interviews, observations, interactions and visual texts which are significant to people life Therefore, it can be seen that qualitative research involves visual texts which can be collected, analyzed and interpreted Besides, qualitative approach helps researcher to understand the issues accurately and comprehensively
In conclusion, the choice of qualitative research is appropriate which determines the choice of subject, sample selection method and data analysis procedure in the study
Moreover, Johansson (2000) states that contrast analysis as the systematic comparison of two or more languages, with the aim of describing their similarities and differences In this study, the final aim of this method is to identify the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese Footwear terminologies in the FW dictionary in terms of structural features
Additionally, quantitative description is also used to help to count the data
Due to the aim of the study to investigate of strategies applied in translating
FW terminologies in the dictionary from English into Vietnamese, document analysis becomes the main data collection method in this study
Specifically, the dictionary is selected to classify FW terminologies into certain groups with the analysis to figure out which strategy is used to transfer these terms
Many translation strategies are presented in the chapter 2 In this study, I mainly use Newmark‟s methods The analysis interptets data based on eight translation procedures and I choose this framework because Newmark (1988b) also presented these strategies for sentences and the smaller units of language They are very suitable for translating Footwear terminology Besides, the translation of Neologisms is applied
To achieve the aims within the scope, the study is to make clear main research question:
What strategies are commonly used to translate FW terminologies from English in to Vietnamese?
Data collection procedure includes three steps:
+Collecting English terminologies and Vietnamese equivalents in the
According to categorized term groups in chapter 2, collected English and Vietnamese terminologies in step 1 are classified into one word and above- one word terms based on their structure patterns
+ Finding the common translation strategies
Based on the framework of translation strategies mentioned in chapter 2 the researcher has to figure out the common strategies in FW dictionary Then, the researcher gives the answer to the research question:
What strategies are commonly used to translate FW terminologies from English in to Vietnamese?
-Classification: Collect and arrange English and Vietnamese terms into 2 groups: one word terms and above-one word terms
-Analysis: Collected English and Vietnamese Footwear terms are discussed how many strategies used to translate them A list is presented in which statistics used translation strategies are calculated and edited in the form of figures The data processing proved to be extremely essential because it served as a framework for suggesting ways to translate English Footwear terms intoVietnamese
-Implication: Make some suggestions for translation strategies in Footwear terms
This chapter indicates some main methods to carry out the study Especially, qualitative approach is the best method to analysis the data The procedure of data collection and data analysis is given out in detail This is a big and important step to get the best findings.
FINDING AND DISCUSSION
The translation of one-word terms from English into Vietnamese
In this section, the translation of one-word terms from English into Vietnamese are discovered Based on the FW terminology features investigated in chapter 2, the study clarifies what are the common issues with one-word terms and what strategies and procedures of translation have been employed effectively in dealing with the translation of FW one-word terms
10 Old word with new sense
Thus, the translation of these terms is influenced by several factors such as translation of Neologisms and technical terms We just find out the terms that are influenced by the same factors when being translated from English into Vietnamese in the following procedures and strategies
4.1.1 Translation by using old words with new sense
This strategy is applied in the translation of the terms which are considered as sub-footwear terms These terms are available in the TL language with their basic nuclear meaning Yet, when used in a professional specific scale, they acquire new typical meaning of that field, meanwhile they still keep their basic nuclear meanings Therefore, they acquire the closest meaning to make the term accurate and appropriate in the language of the special field For example, “close” means to put something into a position so that it covers an opening, however, in footwear documents, its typical meaning is to put components of shoes and stitch them together Take a look the other examples:
English terms Basic nuclear terms Typical terms
Sự bổ trợ Phần dưới Lưỡi
Mũ giầy/ Mặt giầy Gia cố
Mặt đế Chi tiết lưỡi gà bảo vệ mu bàn chân
Newmark (1988, p.81) states that loan word is an SL word is directly taken into the TL text with no translation This strategy is becoming more and more popular in the translation of terms which are not lexicalized in the TL Because of the cultural non-equivalence, it is very hard and challenging to create a new name of the new concept Therefore, many loan words are commonly used
Loan words for translating the materials and chemicals in shoes making
Actually, a number of the names of chemical and materials are very popular and accepted to use as an international language They are derived from Latin or Greek and normally fixed in any text, both in Vietnam and English
Enzyme Enzyme (xúc tác sinh học)
Among the footwear terms, there are some terms denoting the brand of the shoes, types of the shoes and shoes making methods To resolve these terms, the proper names are directly written from English into Vietnamese meanwhile their classifier is translated It helps to keep the copyrights and create a more understandable translated version
Phương pháp Goodyear Giày Moccasin
Logo của công ty Nike Giày Adidas
Giầy Geox Kiểm tra giầy theo tiêu chuẩn Gore-tex
Acronyms are an abbreviation consisting of the first letters of each word in the name of something, pronounced as a word They are created and used for the purpose of one text to denote a long name, such as the name of international institutions, material, and volunteer group and so on They can be transferred and decoded based on context in translation They help translators as well as readers avoiding diffusion and lengthy in speaking and writing For instance: PVC (polyvinylchloride) - Nhựa PVC
This strategy is widely applied nowadays in many fields The transferred terms are adapted in Vietnamese because of the same pronunciation and this is an easiest way for Vietnamese people to read and memorize For instance, boot- bốt, crepe- kếp, zig-zag- zic zắc, box-calf- da bốt can
4.1.4 The translation of terms with the use of descriptive equivalent procedure
Because of the special characteristics, all of the FW terms are translated by explaining to more easily understand, such as the part of the shoes or some accessories of shoes, it is very hard to know without shoes making experiences
Especially, the FW terms have more specific meanings than TL terms and translators have to add more TL words to create a closer approximation of meaning
Additionally, many FW terms are added some images to illustrate
Awl Cái dùi (của thợ giầy dùng trong việc khâu các chi tiết giầy và đồ da bằng tay)
Baguette Túi xách tay (loại túi xách tay dài và hẹp có hình dạng tương tự như một loại ổ bánh mì)
Balmoral Giầy cao cổ (có dây buộc phía trước), mũ Xcôtlen bằng len có lông chim một bên
Welt Diếu (dải bằng da bao quanh mép mũ giầy để khâu đế vào)
Waders Ủng lội nước (loại ủng lội nước không thấm nước được kéo dài từ chân đến ngực, chủ yếu được làm từ cao su lưu hoá, nay là PVC, cao su tổng hợp và biến thể Gore-Tex
Table 4.1: The descriptive equivalent procedure used in one word term translation 4.1.5 Translation by paraphrase using a related word
In footwear field, derived words hold a considerable portion to designate footwear terms and they are widespread with naturalized suffixes Many of footwear terms are noun, adjective or verb with various suffixes and prefixes creating different meanings in the TL They often convey propositional and other types of meaning in English which have no direct equivalents in the TL Thus, the translator should pay attention to the meanings of the suffix, prefix as well as of the whole word for the new one keeps only some of its first meaning and the appropriate lexical of the TL For examples, to indicate people there are several suffixes such as –or, –er, -ee; or prefixes
–non, -un to show the opposite as in the following examples:
English terms Vietnamese terms Terms with suffixes:
Người vẽ truyền Thợ pha cắt
Anti-skid Anti-molds Dehair Non-shrinkable Non-slip
Chống trơn trượt Chống mốc Tẩy lông Không có khả năng co được Không trơn trượt
There are some footwear terms which are literally translated thanks to available meaning As following are some example of applying literal translation to single noun, verb and adjective:
In nổi Trang trí Dán keo
In short, it is obvious that the number of one-word terms in the FW field is not as many as above word terms, however, they often cause troubles to the translator in the process of translation To gain good results in FW translation, translators need to clarify these troubles so as to find out the best way to deal with each one based on the theory of translation of technical terms The translator should pick up the appropriate procedures and strategies to gain the purpose of terminology translation.
The translation of above-word level terms from English into Vietnamese
All of the collected above-word level terms are compounds and they belong to the form of nominal group presented by Mark Halliday (1985) Based on the relationship between Thing and other elements of compound terms, they are divided into different groups Some appropriate translation strategies for these compound terms are transpositions procedure, translation by omission, and translation by description of which the first procedure is the most popular and applied widely in the translation of the compound terms
4.2.1 Translation by shift and transpositions
As mentioned above, this strategy is applied effectively in the translation of most of the investigated compound terms from English into Vietnamese Two types of transpositions including transposition with the change in word order from SL to
TL and transposition by rank-shift are shown To be more precise, change word order is mainly employed in the translation of the compound terms in the form of simple and unmarked nominal group For example, automatic press is translated as máy ép tự động Meanwhile, transposition is rank-shift which is used in the translation of the compound terms that normally do not have the Vietnamese equivalent to the lexical units of the English compound terms In this case, these compound terms are equivalent to a clause in Vietnamese For instance, the Vietnamese equivalent of performed leather is “da có đục lỗ”.The examples of transpositions in FW terms translation are illustrated as follows
4.2.1.1 Translation with the change word order from SL to TL
According to Hoang Van Van (1988), one of the major differences between English and Vietnamese of the experiential structure of nominal group is that in English the Classifier and Epithet elements precede the Thing meanwhile in Vietnamese they follow the Thing Translation by transposition procedure is change word order, especially, change the position of adjectives or modifying element in nominal group between English and Vietnamese
Classifier/ Epithet + Thing Thing + Classifier/Epithet
Above-word level terms can be translated by transposition in subgroups: a Classifier/ Epithet (adjective) + Thing
It is a simple and easy way to translate compound terms of this type from English into Vietnamese when the lexical equivalents as the meaning of the Thing and Classifier or Epithet can be seen obviously The only thing for the translators to do is to rearrange the lexical items and sequence of English compounds in Vietnamese For instance, the compound word “ real leather” are analyzed according to the experiential structure of the nominal group presented by Halliday
(1994) ,“ leather” is the Thing which stands in the second position, whereas “real” the Epithet specifying the Thing by indicating the quality of the Thing stands in the first position In Vietnamese, on the other hand, the Thing “leather” means “da” in the first position and the Epithet “real” as “thật” in the second one As a result of the translation process from English into Vietnamese, the meaning of the compound term “real leather” is “da thật” Some examples of this type can be given out:
Low footwear Protective footwear Real leather Heavy stitching
Giầy dép loại thấp Giầy bảo hộ lao động
Da thật Mũi may thô(dầy) Mũi giầy không đối xứng
Continental size Cỡ giầy quốc tế b Classifier (noun) + Thing
Like translating group Classifier/ Epithet (adjective) + Thing ,when translators come across this type, they only arrange the equivalent constituents of the compound in the form of nominal group in English in the correspondent syntactic word order style of the nominal group in Vietnamese by the way that the second element which is the Thing of the compound term in English becomes the first and the Classifier which signifies a unique subclass of the Thing becomes the second element in Vietnamese compound terms Obviously, the meaning of the compounds is made explicit by the existence of a relational word “for” and “of” or
“made of” to show the purpose and relation or mention products origin in English, the compound term can be translated into Vietnamese appropriately without any relational word For example, in the compound term “canvas shoes” is translated as
“giầy vải” In Vietnamese, relational words “làm bằng” is lost Following are other examples of this type:
Ballet slippers Foot anatomy Beach sandals Exhibition last
Giầy ba lê mềm Giải phẫu bàn chân Dép đi biển
With this easy translation procedure, the translators can do with any terms by only two steps, firstly, identifying the divisions between the elements in the group, secondly, rearranging these elements in the corresponding logical order in Vietnamese Therefore, the translators can use this translation procedure to translate the terms of longer nominal groups such as:
Heel seat lining Hot-melt adhensive Offset heel counter Column sewing machine
Lót phần hậu Keo nhiệt dẻo Miếng đệm gót Máy may trụ
Heel attaching machine Máy đóng gót
A rank-shift is the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure To convey the transferred meaning properly, in some cases, it is essential to change the grammatical structure of certain items in the SL text, for instance, a phrase or a word in SL will correspond to a clause in TL and vice versa From collected FW terminology, there are many terms created in the form of nominal groups which do not have the direct equivalents in Vietnamese, but correspond to Vietnamese clauses or in some cases they are equivalence with the Vietnamese verbal group Hence, using the translation procedure rank-shift for the translation of these terms is very essential
These nominal groups are in the various forms which are examined in subgroups as follows: a Classifier/ Epithet (V-ed) + Thing
To translate this type of compounds, the form of the Classifier/ Epithet which is formed by a derived word from a verb in –ed participle when it is followed by a
Thing is specially paid attention Actually , the derived words from verb in –ed participle of the compounds which play the role of an adjective to characterize the
Thing, for instance, the word “ruched” in term “ ruched boots” is equivalent with an embedded clause in Vietnamese This clause explains how the action of the Thing is carried out The translators are then to find the lexical equivalent for the lexical items of the compound Then, the translator to do is to put these lexical equivalents in the logical order in Vietnamese The Classifier/ Epithet ending in –ed participle which indicates the subclass of the Thing in English now becomes the second lexical unit – the verbal group in Vietnamese; meanwhile the second constituent – the Thing is put in the first position in the embedded clause in Vietnamese and it is translated “Giầy ủng được trang trí bằng vải xếp nếp” Comparing with change order procedure, this strategy creates semantic meanings of terms are clearer and more comprehensive Some more compound terms of this type are translated as follows:
Perforated leather Reinforced leather Burnished edge
Da được gia cố Mép được đánh bóng b Thing + qualifier (N + Prp + N)
When encountering compound terms of this type from English into Vietnamese, the duty of translator is to identify the grammatical unit of the Qualifier in compound term in the form of nominal group since the prepositional phrase with the function of the Qualifier in the English compound term is rank- shifted That is the Qualifier of the investigated compound terms is no longer a constituent of a nominal group but embedded or rank shifted There is no direct equivalent for the Qualifier of this kind in Vietnamese, but it corresponds with a clause or verbal group in Vietnamese such as the term “elongation at break %”
Based on the experiential structure of the nominal group, elongation is the Thing and considered as the first element of the compound; “at break %” is the Qualifier which stands as the second and has the function of characterizing the Thing In Vietnamese footwear term, “elongation” is equivalent with “độ dãn dài” – the Head, and “at break %” is equivalent with “khi da gẫy mặt tính theo %” - the Qualifier Therefore, the compound term “elongation at break %” is translated as
“độ giãn dài khi da gẫy mặt tính theo %”
With this strategies, translators do not need to rearrange the word order in the compound term in Vietnamese as it has the same order (Thing + Qualifier)
However, it is necessary for the translator to find out the equivalent for the Qualifier in the TL to have the best version of translation Followings are some more examples of this type of compound terms:
Boot with turn-over top Abnormality in the foot Nappa for shoes
Giầy ủng có phần trên lật lên
Da mềm để làm giầy
Ornamentation for the quarter Trang trí chi tiết lên phần thân sau của giầy
Some of the concepts that are not technically lexicalized in Vietnamese, however, translators can use the known words or phrases to express and explain them This strategy, especially, helps all readers still have a deep, specific picture about the FW terminology without experiences in this field
Syntactically, this strategy makes a quite long explanation, on contrast, semantic meanings of FW terms become more and more detailed and comprehensive
Appropriate strategies and procedures applied in translating Footwear
According to the investigation of the translation of English footwear terms into Vietnamese, a number of FW terms are generated more and more as well as recognized issues arise during the process of the translation They require appropriate strategies used to deal with problems in this field The realizable problems for the translators are the subtechnical terms, derived words, and differences in form, in the collocational patterns and the SL concept is not lexicalized in the TL To resolve these problems, transference, naturalization, transpositions, translation by omission, paraphrase, and descriptive procedure are applied
It is very important to list again all mentioned translation strategies and procedures with the aim of suggesting the appropriate ways for the translation of foot wear terms from English into Vietnamese
4.3.1 Using old words with new sense
This translation procedure is mainly applied when the terms are sub technical terms or an ordinal word is translated with typical meaning in a special field (See examples in 4.1.1.)
Loan words are used for translating the materials and chemicals in shoes making, especially the footwear acronyms and eponyms are employed when the SL concept is not lexicalized in the TL (see examples in 4.1.2.)
Translation by naturalization is employed to the footwear terms which have same pronunciation or morphology (see examples in 4.1.3.)
This strategy is employed when the footwear terms in English have not been lexicalized in the TL (see examples in 4.1.4 and 4.2.2)
Paraphrase using a related word strategy is proposed when the terms in English is lexicalized in the TL but in a different form (see examples in 4.1.5.)
Transposition procedure is applied because of the differences in the language structures of the two languages (see examples in 4.2.1.1., 4.2.1.2.)
Reduction procedure is necessary when translating the compound terms in the form of nominal group (Thing + Qualifier) of which the Qualifier is the prepositional phrase to make the translation sound natural in the TL (see examples in 3.2.3.)
Some suggestions for the Footwear terminology translation strategies
As clearly seen in this study, it is no wonder why transference has gained much preference in the translation of technical terms in general, and of FW terms in particular However, this procedure has both advantages and disadvantages
In terms of the advantages, it is of great help in dealing with non-equivalence problem since there are quite a few concepts unknown in the TL In such cases, the translator has no option but to directly borrow the English word into the target language One widely accepted benefit of employing this strategy is that it enables the translator to give a short, precise translation easily without having to go deeply into the meaning of the term, hence limiting or avoiding false translation, especially when the term in question is completely new
Regarding the disadvantages, it is difficult to avoid attacking the national characteristics of terminology appears to be harder more than ever if borrowed or loan words are used frequently Besides, the way these borrowed terms are read and written definitely, to more or lesser extent, make it difficult for readers, especially when a TL term about the names of shoes such as “ New balance”, “ Mocassin” keeps exactly the same form in the SL
Different types of transposition are used to translate many groups of terms and to eliminate different problems Undoubtedly, it is a useful translation procedure that it can help deal with the differences in word formation and structural patterns between the two languages
4.4.3 Suggestion for descriptive equivalent procedure
This translation strategy is one of the effective options in dealing with non- equivalence problem The concept the writer wishes to explain in detail to easily understand Moreover, this strategy is too useful to help clarify meaning and make the term more clearly to the readers However, the lengthy explanations of footwear in the translated version, it is a hindrance for translators and readers in listening and writing Hence, the creation a new concept is very necessary as well as difficult
Translators must give both short terms and concrete terms to help the listener have a deep understanding
This chapter has briefly examined the translation of one-word terms and above-word level terms in the light of the translation theory It mainly focuses on finding out the commonly used procedures for the translation of these terms and shows the appropriate procedures to deal with issues in translation.
CONCLUSION
Summary of findings
1 Using old word with a new sense to deal with sub-footwear terms, these words exist in the TL and take on the typical meanings in a special field
2 Terms referring to the name of shoes brand, shoes making methods and materials, footwear eponyms and acronyms, they are unavailable in the subculture of footwear in Vietnam Transference is the best procedure in translating FW terms from English into Vietnamese
3 The FW terms are adapted in Vietnamese because of the same pronunciation and help Vietnamese people to read and memorize, the naturalization procedure should be applied
4 Many of footwear terms are noun, adjective or verb with various suffixes and prefixes creating different meanings in the TL, we can translate by paraphrase using a related word
5 Terms referring to words that are available in the Vietnamese, it is simple to apply the literal translation
6 Both one word terms and above-word terms, the footwear concepts that are not technically lexicalized in Vietnamese or they can call the names, however, the listeners can not imagine, therefore, translators can use descriptive equivalent procedure to express and explain them
1 Terms translated with transposition procedure that involves an automatic change in the word order from SL to TL
2 Terms consisting of Classifier (past participle) + Thing, translation by rank- shift (English nominal group = Vietnamese clause) is proposed
3 Terms consisting of Thing + Qualifier (Noun + of + Noun, Noun +for+
Noun), the translators can employ omission of the prepositions.
The Implications of the Study
A professional translator is able to transfer the meaning of the SL text to the
TL in a natural way as well as translation of terminology To gain the goals of translation in every field, the translators must have a deep knowledge about the field they are doing the translation, especially how to translate terminology exactly, naturally and keep the soul of terms in TL This study is conducted to give a detailed overview about FW terms and help translators to avoid confusion during translating the FW terms
Below are valuable notices to deal with the translation of FW terms at word and above word level:
When translators work with the FW terms at word level, they need to concentrate on the field register in order to find out the closest lexical equivalent in the TL for the SL term when translating the Neologisms Moreover, it is politic to add one or more words that are equivalent in meaning in the TL for the translation of the derived words Lastly, the terms which indicate FW materials or names of shoes, shoes making methods originated from SL, but it is new and have not been lexicalized in TL, transference might be the best strategy
When translators work with FW compound terms, classification the word class of the compound as well as choice the appropriate correspondent word class substitution in the TL are very necessary which can keep the same propositional meaning of the SL Additionally, the change in the word order of the terms is inevitable because of the differences in grammatical structures between English and
Vietnamese Moreover, there are many new concepts and new objects appearing in
SL and they are not unfamiliar to the TL readers, translators can use description strategies to make clearer with detailed explanation
Especially, it is obvious that description equivalent strategies are much proposed It is a hindrance for translators and readers in listening and writing
Hence, the creation a new concept is very necessary as well as difficult Translators must give both short terms and concrete terms to help the listener have a deep understanding
To sum up, the study has proved that the translators are able to do their work in translating footwear terms much better by applying appropriate strategies only when they have comprehensive and systematic knowledge about the SL and TL grammatical and semantic features of footwear terms Before they start this tough work, it is essential to access to shoes making process lesson in reality This research, thus, has been conducted with the hope that it can be useful document to the translators or to anyone who is interested in this field
5.2.2 For EFL Teaching and Learning
ESP is widely teaching and learning in many universities, however, we have not got an ESP course about Footwear yet Therefore, we have an ambition of designing an ESP course book for students to help them to familiarize with the basic knowledge of FW field The course book might be designed for reading all documents related FW Teaching reading comprehension is very important for our colleges as only through reading written materials on specific themes of the FW field, our students have a deep understanding During the process of teaching and learning ESP, we realize that terminology, though making up a small percentage of words in the texts, causes much difficulty to learners Therefore, a perfect translation of the terms based on a thorough understanding of their grammatical and semantic features makes it easier for learners
For ESP learners, understanding the new vocabulary is very great since this helps them understand the whole text thoroughly There are many ways to present new vocabulary, namely giving concise definition, detailed description, for example, synonyms, antonyms and translation However, in FW texts, a detailed description, including translation is the best and fastest ways to get the meaning of the new vocabulary The fact is that many of the FW terminology are compounds, nevertheless, it is essential to provide an analysis of the grammatical features and semantic relationship of the constituents since these features might affect the meaning of the compound This research has been carried out with the hope to be of some use for ESP teaching/learning to students who interested in FW field.
Suggestions for Further Study
This study has tried to collect data from the authentic documents and investigate the translation strategies of FW terms based on analyzing structural features of the terms Besides, this study find outs some common strategies to deal with terms at word level and compound terms and some special ways to translate
However, since the time is limited, we have not collected all the FW books which have many paragraphs and the way to make shoes in some contexts
Therefore, some issues such as the textual and pragmatic equivalence in FW texts between two languages are not carried out
Additionally, the followings are our suggestions for further study which will be of great interest and use for anyone concerning the study of translation of footwear terminology
A study on the translation of footwear noun phrase terminology
A study on the grammatical equivalence of the footwear terminology
A study on the textual equivalence of the footwear terminology
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APPENDICES Appendix 1: Old words with new sense
Quarter Thân sau của giầy
Tip Trang trí mũi giầy
Tongue Chi tiết lưỡi gà bảo vệ mu bàn chân
Upper Mũ giầy/ Mặt giầy
Ankle socks Giải phẫu bàn chân
Baby shoes Giầy trẻ mới sinh
Ballerina shoe Giầy múa ba lê
Ballet slippers Giầy múa ba lê mềm
Basketball shoes Giầy vận động viên chơi môn bóng rổ
Bathroom slippers Dép đi trong nhà tắm
Beach sandals Dép đi biển
Blister stitch Mũi may nổi
Boot loops Các vòng thắt của ủng
Boot puller Sợi kéo của ủng
Boot waist Phần eo của ủng
Burst strength Độ bền nổ
Canvas slippers Dép lê bằng vải
Crescent reinforcement Gia cố hình lưỡi liềm
Exhibition last Phom giầy trưng bày
Field boot Ủng làm ruộng/ Ủng thợ mỏ
Bottom filler Độn đế giầy
Foam rubber Cao su xốp
Flexibility resistance Độ bền chịu uốn
Heel grip Rãnh nhỏ ở gót giầy
Heel girth Chu vi gót giầy
Heel layer Lớp gót giầy
Heel pad Miếng đệm gót
Heel piece Miếng da gót giầy
Leather footwear Giầy dép da
Adherent force Lực bám dính
Amphibious boots Giầy ủng làm bằng da động vật lưỡng cư
Asymmetrical upper Mũ giầy không đối xứng
Automatic press Máy ép tự động
Automatic oven Lò sấy tự động
Classic last Phom giầy kinh điển
Direct dyes Thuốc nhuộm trực tiếp
Direct mould Khuôn đổ trực tiếp
Fashionable footwear Giầy thời trang
Flat boots Giầy ủng phẳng
Haft boots Giầy ủng lửng
Hard rubber Cao su cứng
Butted seam Đường may nối
Burnished edge Mép được đánh bóng
Buttoned shoes Giầy cài khuy
Cemented shoes Giầy dán keo
Closed seam Đường may khép kín
Closed toe Phần mũi kín
Coated leather Da tráng phủ
Dressed leather Da may mặc
Mũi giầy có đục lỗ Punched toe-cap
Ribbed sole Đế thêm đường kẻ sọc
Appendix 5: Noun/Adjective+ Noun+Noun Noun/Adjective+ V-ing+Noun
Albert tab slipper Giầy dép nhẹ có quai để đi trong nhà Ballet hard toe shoe Giầy ba lê mũi cứng
Bar strap shoe Giầy có quai
Calf length boot Giầy ủng cao đến bắp chân
Canvas rubber shoe Giầy vải có cao su
Last side projection Hình chiếu bên của phom
Soft shoe upper leather Da mũ giầy mềm
Automatic conveyor belt Băng tải tự động Breathable nylon upper Mũ giầy nilông thoáng hơi
Classic fashion court Giầy nữ thời trang cao gót kinh điển
Industrial sewing machine Máy may công nghiệp
Edge burnishing machine Máy làm bóng mép
Manifold heel copying lathe Máy tiện sao chép gót đa chiều
Leather marking pen Bút đánh dấu trên da thuộc
Leather punching machine Máy đục lỗ da
Jute sole sewing machine Máy may đế quay Heel attaching machine Máy đóng gót
Bending resistance Độ bền chịu uốn
Binding machine Máy làm viền
Brushing machine Máy chải bụi
Burnishing wax Sáp đánh bóng
Buying department Bộ phận thu mua
Cementing machine Máy bôi keo
Cleaning solution Dung dịch làm sạch
Climbing shoes Giày leo núi
Closing department Xưởng may ráp
Combing leather Da thuộc kết hợp
Cracking grain Mặt cật bị rạn
Curing agent Chất lưu hóa
Cutting board (hand) Thớt cắt chi tiết thủ công
Cutting die Dao chặt, dao cắt
Cutting plate Tấm cắt, thớt chặt
Dancing shoes Giầy khiêu vũ
Dancing clog Guốc khiêu vũ
Dyeing assistant Phụ gia nhuộm
Dyeing auxiliaries Chất trợ nhuộm
Flexing endurance Độ bền uốn gấp
Finishing material Chất hoàn thiện
Cutting edge Lưỡi dao cắt
Folding machine Máy gấp mép
Gimping punch Đục trang trí mép răng cưa
Hunting shoes Giầy đi săn
Making room Bộ phận hoàn chỉnh giầy
Overlapping sewing May đè lên nhau
Packaging material Vật liệu đóng gói
Packing list Bản kê đóng gói
Perforating machine Máy đục lỗ
Rolling machine Máy lăn da
Running shoes Giày điền kinh
Appendix 7: Using descriptive equivalent procedure
Awl Cái dùi (của thợ giầy dùng trong việc khâu các chi tiết giầy và đồ da bằng tay) Brogan Giầy ống cao đến mắt cá chân (để làm việc nặng)
Giày ủng (loại giày ủng từ thế kỷ 16 có mũ giày bằng da mềm xốp, ống cao đến bắp chân hay đầu gối, hoặc có thể là loại ủng buộc dây ngắn hơn bắt nguồn từ giày brodeguin ở thế kỷ
15 Từ thế kỷ 16, người ta bắt đầu giới thiệu các loại giày dép khác, như giày cao gót Hy Lạp cổ/ corthurnus/ korthornos, như "buskins" vì chúng giống như Buskins, dẫn đến sự nhầm lẫn về những gì giày đế cao thực sự có được Chúng cũng được sử dụng cùng với bít tất ngắn thấp và ống bằng da, lanh, lụa, hoặc vải thêu)
Calc Dép sandal (một loại dép sandal theo thuật ngữ Anglo Saxon)
Calceology chuyên ngành nghiên cứu về giày dép, đặc biệt là lịch sử về giày dép, cho dù là khảo cổ học, lịch sử thời trang giày v.v
Cligae Giầy cổ (loại giày dép của hàng giáo sĩ thời Trung cổ Tên này có nguồn gốc từ Caligae của La Mã, loại ủng này
Galosh Giầy cao su (đi mưa, đi tuyết và thường đi ra ngoài giầy khác) Moccasins Giày Moccasin (loại giầy được làm bằng một miếng da hươu hoặc da mềm khác gồm cả mũ lẫn đế và có khâu thêm chi tiết lưỡi gà, đầu tiên được các bộ lạc người bản xứ ở Mỹ dùng) Đế giầy có thể bằng vật liệu cứng hay mềm còn mũ giầy được ghép nhờ khâu ren)
Giầy ủng của người chăn bò miền Tây nước Mỹ (loại giầy ủng dùng để cưỡi ngựa dùng cho các chàng cao bồi, có gót giầy, mũi nhọn và các đường khâu trang trí Mũi giầy nhọn giúp cho giầy dễ lồng vào bàn đạp, trong khi người cưỡi điều khiển con ngựa Gót ủng sẽ giúp giữ chân người cưỡi ở vị trí trong bàn đạp khi cưỡi ngựa
Giầy mũi rộng Cuối thế kỷ 15, xu hướng thời trang giày chuyển từ mũi nhọn sang mũi ngắn, mũi vuông Giày mũi rộng trở nên hết sức thịnh hành với độ rộng khoảng 6 inch
Dép xỏ ngón, loại dép lê không có quai hậu có quai trước hình chữ V được lắp vào đế ở 3 điểm: giữa các ngón chân lớn và thứ hai và ở hai bên của bàn chân, người sử dụng dễ dàng đi vào và tháo ra rất tiện lợi
Là một phương pháp chỉnh sửa phom giầy Khi bàn chân rộng hơn, mu bàn chân hoặc ngón chân cái cao hơn, hoặc gót chân dày hơn mức trung bình người thợ đóng giày sẽ chỉnh sửa phom giầy bằng cách gắn thêm các miếng da khác nhau lên mặt phom chỗ cần thiết cho phù hợp Người thợ đóng giày thường sử dụng phương pháp này để đóng giày theo đo chân, ngoài ra để chế tạo phom với lượng lớn ta dùng nó chế tạo hàng loạt trên máy phay chép phom
Enzyme Enzyme (xúc tác sinh học)
Goodyear method Phương pháp Goodyear
Gore-tex test Kiểm tra giầy theo tiêu chuẩn Gore-tex
Nike logo Logo của công ty Nike
AAFA (American Alparrel & Footwear) AAFA(Hiệp hội các nhà sản xuất giầy dép, quần áo Hoa Kỳ)
EAC (ethyl acetate) Chất EAC
ISO (international standards organization) ISO (tổ chức tiêu chuẩn quốc tế)
Box-calf Vải bốt can
Appendix 9: Translation by paraphrase using a related word
Anti-skid Chống trơn trượt Anti-molds Chống mốc
Non-shrinkable Không có khả năng co được
Non- slip Không trơn trượt
Anti-blocking agent Chất chống đóng cứng
Eco-leather Da sinh thái
Skiver Người lạng mỏng da
