Justification of the study
Grammatical metaphor in general and nominalization in particular is a familiar concept in Systemic Functional Grammar and recent research of Halliday (1985, 1988, 1994), have proved that grammatical metaphor involving nominalization play a key role in creating scientific discourse Halliday considers nominalization from a systemic functional perspective This theory is functional because it aims to account for three basic kind of meaning, namely, the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual Nominalization, a type of grammatical metaphor, is one of the most prominent syntactic features of political discourse However, the use of this kind of metaphor in political discourse with the role in the enactment, reproduction, and legitimization of power and domination, may cause difficulties for the readers or the listeners in understanding what is meant or referred to by the writer or the speaker Our thesis is entitled “Nominalization as grammatical metaphor in Political Discourse in English and Vietnamese from the perspective of Systemic Functional Grammar” The choice of our thesis is based on three reasons Firstly, the nominalization, as explained in later sections, is the nominalizing process, which is “the single most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor” (Halliday: 1994: 352)
The absence of sufficient research on nominalization as grammatical metaphor in political discourse poses an interesting challenge for us Secondly, an insight into the nature and the functions of nominalization in political discourse can help the researcher to make comprehensive and comprehensible presentations of nominalization and help readers to realize its importance for the comprehension of English and Vietnamese political speeches
Finally, we set out a view of the interrelationship of language and society, with the emphasis on power and ideology Ideology is pervasively present in language, that fact ought to mean that the ideological nature of language should be one of the major themes of modern social science Particularly, there is a close connection between a linguistic choice and a certain ideology maintained by relations of power, and the power phenomenon is manifested in a variety of linguistic structures.
Aims and Objectives of the study
The aim of this study is to make an inquiry into the nature of nominalization in English and Vietnamese in general
This study also points out the functions of nominalization in political discourse and therefore explains why nominalization should be given special treatment in working with this specialized genre Its impacts on the message content are also explored
In carrying out the study this way, the following questions are raised for exploration
1 What is the Nature of Nominalization in English and in Vietnamese?
2 What are the Linguistic Structure and the Functions of Nominalization in English and Vietnamese Political Discourses?
3 What are the Linguistic and Cultural Similarities and Differences between
Nominalization in English political discourse and that in Vietnamese one?
Hopefully, this research will provide some insight and practical help in decoding political speeches, in evaluating linguistic aspects of the ideas conveyed, the way the more powerful employ language in order to impose their ideas on the less powerful members of society, and finally the readers can figure out the similarities and differences in the use of nominalization in political discourse between English and Vietnamese.
Scope of the study
This study attempts to explore the concept of nominalization in English and in Vietnamese in terms of linguistic structure to find out the similarities and differences of the concept between the two languages It is also the intent of this study to analyze the use of nominalization in political speeches in English and Vietnamese to figure out how it contributes to the metafunctions of the discourse, the overall meanings of the discourse and how it serves the speakers‟ ideologies
We begin this study with a descriptive method to identify the phenomenon, then compare and contrast the phenomenon between English and Vietnamese The researcher adopts the statistical method and analyzes the data in terms of quality and quantity The study conducted is an inductive approach where data is collected from English and Vietnamese political discourses to describe nominalization as a natural linguistics process
In the exploration of nominalization in political discourse, the systemic functional theory as developed by Halliday (1994), Dik (1997), Matthiessen (1995), and other systemicists is adopted as the theoretical framework
The paper includes three parts namely Part A- Introduction, Part B- Development and Part C-Conclusion Part B is divided into four chapters:
Chapter 1 explores theoretical background of Systemic Functional Grammar, the concept of Grammatical Metaphor and the Language of Political Discourse
In chapter 2, the emphasis is on Nominalization in English and Vietnamese as a general description
In chapter 3, the focus shifts to Nominalization in political discourse in English and Vietnamese with a case study on two speeches: one of the President Bush and the other of the President Nguyen Minh Triet
Chapter 4 brings focus on a comparative and contrastive analysis between nominalization in English and Vietnamese to find out both the similarities and the differences Therefore, the researcher can suggest some implications for teaching and translating
PART B : DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Systemic functional linguistics (hereafter abbreviated “SFL”) conceives of text as social interaction Systemic functional linguists view language as systems of meaning potential in human interaction that are realized by various structures The organizing concept is not a structure described by rules, but as communicative behavior, as meaning making in a context of a culture, the behavior matrix within which all social interaction take place and the general context that gives meaning to culturally recognized activities In addition, systemic functional grammar develops a profound analysis of language on the base of regarding reality- representational and communicative functions of language These functions, termed by Halliday as metafunctions including ideational, interpersonal and textual metafunctions of language, are related to the issue how it is shaped to meet human needs
Ideational metafunction is the one that helps to understand, organize and express perceptions of the world and our consciousness The ideational component on the semantic plane consists of experiential meanings and logical meanings Experiential meanings at the grammatical rank of the clause are those functions that reflect or represent processes, participants, and circumstances In Halliday‟s analysis of English (Halliday, 1994: 106-
161), experiential meanings are accounted for in clauses by the transitivity system The transitivity system includes choices of process type and the configurations of possible participants, process and circumstances which are associated with a particular process type
Logical meanings are realized by relationships of coordination (or parataxis) and subordination (or hypotaxis) between clauses and other structure units The way of analyzing the clause in terms of process, participants and circumstances produces constituency structures whereas logical meanings are associated with interdependency structures The following example represents an experiential analysis of clause:
Who has cleaned the floor?
Interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the interaction between the speaker and the addressee(s)- the grammatical resources for enacting social roles in general, speech roles in particular, in dialogic interaction; i.e for establishing, changing and maintaining interpersonal relations The functions within the interpersonal component include giving or demanding information, expressing intention, assessing degree of probability, expressing attitude, and so on These functions have to do with social interaction than with “content”
The grammar of interpersonal meanings put the focus of clause as a unit of exchange structured as Subject, Predicator, Complements and Adjuncts An analysis of a clause from this perspective can be shown in the following example:
Who has cleaned the floor?
Textual metafunction is described through the system of theme Thematic structure “gives the clause its character as a message (Halliday 1994: 37) and thus, creates relevant to the context The descriptive elements used to show this are called Theme and Rheme The theme serves as the departure of the message, which in English coincides with the initial element(s) of the clause; and the Rheme is the remainder of the message These elements may also be classified as Given, or information which identifies that which the clause is about, and New, information which relates to the Given The following example shows the analysis of the textual perspective:
Who has cleaned the floor?
Theme Rheme There is a close relationship between these two structures Within any set of contextual conditions, the speaker can exploit the potential that the situation defines, using thematic and information structure to produce an astonishing variety of rhetorical effect
The relationship of these three functions, which are in the discourse- semantic stratum, is called “metafunctional resonance” by Halliday (1994)
Functional Grammar defines metaphors as variations in the expression of meaning rather than just variations in the use of words Functional Grammar looks at metaphors from a different perspective, not asking “how is this word used?” but “how is this meaning expressed?” or “how is grammar structured to make the text effective in the achievement of purpose?” There is a kind of transference going on, the transfer of representation between different grammatical categories The difference in the message is the kind of meaning variation which Halliday (1994) calls Grammatical Metaphor Therefore, grammatical metaphor means a substitution of one grammatical class, or one grammatical structure by another Similarly, Matthiessen (1995) discusses grammatical metaphor as a way of expanding the semantic potential of the system; or Thompson (1996) as the expression of a meaning through a lexical- grammatical form which originally evolved to express a different kind of meaning For example:
(a) the index dropped surprisingly sharply (b) a surprisingly sharp drop in the index
In short, for Halliday and systemic Functionalists, metaphor constitutes a lexicogrammatical phenomenon; they are the result of realignments in the realizational relationship between semantic units and grammatical ones that create a complex relationship between semantics and lexicogrammar There is, thus, a congruent and an incongruent or metaphorical realization It is important to say that there will always be some semantic features or features distinguishing grammatically metaphorical forms and their non-metaphorical counterparts (Halliday, 1985)
Halliday (1994) divides grammatical metaphor into metaphors of mood (including modality) and metaphors of transitivity In terms of semantic functions, these are, respectively, interpersonal metaphors and ideational metaphors
Thompson (1996) classifies grammatical metaphor into logical and experiential metaphors, interpersonal metaphors and textual metaphors
In the following sections we will adopt Halliday‟s view in classifying grammatical metaphors into interpersonal and ideational metaphors
Ideational grammatical metaphors are called metaphors of transitivity The grammatical variation between congruent and incongruent forms here applied to transitivity configurations, and can be analyzed in terms of the functional structure of these configurations Expression of ideational meanings is extended in important ways beyond their default encoding The default expression of ideational meanings is as follows: Process is represented by clauses; Qualities by adjectives and Entities by nouns or noun phrases In principle, metaphorical expressions can be represented in either of two ways, either (1) taking them at their face value, or (2) interpreting them in their congruent form (Halliday,
1994: 346) In order to bring out the metaphorical nature of an incongruent expression, it is compared to an equivalent congruent realization For example:
The year the villa was completed saw the end of 20 years of war with
In the year the villa was completed 20 years of war with
Circumstance: Temporal Actor Process: Material
Format of the study
The paper includes three parts namely Part A- Introduction, Part B- Development and Part C-Conclusion Part B is divided into four chapters:
Chapter 1 explores theoretical background of Systemic Functional Grammar, the concept of Grammatical Metaphor and the Language of Political Discourse
In chapter 2, the emphasis is on Nominalization in English and Vietnamese as a general description
In chapter 3, the focus shifts to Nominalization in political discourse in English and Vietnamese with a case study on two speeches: one of the President Bush and the other of the President Nguyen Minh Triet
Chapter 4 brings focus on a comparative and contrastive analysis between nominalization in English and Vietnamese to find out both the similarities and the differences Therefore, the researcher can suggest some implications for teaching and translating.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Systemic Functional Grammar
Systemic functional linguistics (hereafter abbreviated “SFL”) conceives of text as social interaction Systemic functional linguists view language as systems of meaning potential in human interaction that are realized by various structures The organizing concept is not a structure described by rules, but as communicative behavior, as meaning making in a context of a culture, the behavior matrix within which all social interaction take place and the general context that gives meaning to culturally recognized activities In addition, systemic functional grammar develops a profound analysis of language on the base of regarding reality- representational and communicative functions of language These functions, termed by Halliday as metafunctions including ideational, interpersonal and textual metafunctions of language, are related to the issue how it is shaped to meet human needs
Ideational metafunction is the one that helps to understand, organize and express perceptions of the world and our consciousness The ideational component on the semantic plane consists of experiential meanings and logical meanings Experiential meanings at the grammatical rank of the clause are those functions that reflect or represent processes, participants, and circumstances In Halliday‟s analysis of English (Halliday, 1994: 106-
161), experiential meanings are accounted for in clauses by the transitivity system The transitivity system includes choices of process type and the configurations of possible participants, process and circumstances which are associated with a particular process type
Logical meanings are realized by relationships of coordination (or parataxis) and subordination (or hypotaxis) between clauses and other structure units The way of analyzing the clause in terms of process, participants and circumstances produces constituency structures whereas logical meanings are associated with interdependency structures The following example represents an experiential analysis of clause:
Who has cleaned the floor?
Interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the interaction between the speaker and the addressee(s)- the grammatical resources for enacting social roles in general, speech roles in particular, in dialogic interaction; i.e for establishing, changing and maintaining interpersonal relations The functions within the interpersonal component include giving or demanding information, expressing intention, assessing degree of probability, expressing attitude, and so on These functions have to do with social interaction than with “content”
The grammar of interpersonal meanings put the focus of clause as a unit of exchange structured as Subject, Predicator, Complements and Adjuncts An analysis of a clause from this perspective can be shown in the following example:
Who has cleaned the floor?
Textual metafunction is described through the system of theme Thematic structure “gives the clause its character as a message (Halliday 1994: 37) and thus, creates relevant to the context The descriptive elements used to show this are called Theme and Rheme The theme serves as the departure of the message, which in English coincides with the initial element(s) of the clause; and the Rheme is the remainder of the message These elements may also be classified as Given, or information which identifies that which the clause is about, and New, information which relates to the Given The following example shows the analysis of the textual perspective:
Who has cleaned the floor?
Theme Rheme There is a close relationship between these two structures Within any set of contextual conditions, the speaker can exploit the potential that the situation defines, using thematic and information structure to produce an astonishing variety of rhetorical effect
The relationship of these three functions, which are in the discourse- semantic stratum, is called “metafunctional resonance” by Halliday (1994).
Grammatical Metaphor
Functional Grammar defines metaphors as variations in the expression of meaning rather than just variations in the use of words Functional Grammar looks at metaphors from a different perspective, not asking “how is this word used?” but “how is this meaning expressed?” or “how is grammar structured to make the text effective in the achievement of purpose?” There is a kind of transference going on, the transfer of representation between different grammatical categories The difference in the message is the kind of meaning variation which Halliday (1994) calls Grammatical Metaphor Therefore, grammatical metaphor means a substitution of one grammatical class, or one grammatical structure by another Similarly, Matthiessen (1995) discusses grammatical metaphor as a way of expanding the semantic potential of the system; or Thompson (1996) as the expression of a meaning through a lexical- grammatical form which originally evolved to express a different kind of meaning For example:
(a) the index dropped surprisingly sharply (b) a surprisingly sharp drop in the index
In short, for Halliday and systemic Functionalists, metaphor constitutes a lexicogrammatical phenomenon; they are the result of realignments in the realizational relationship between semantic units and grammatical ones that create a complex relationship between semantics and lexicogrammar There is, thus, a congruent and an incongruent or metaphorical realization It is important to say that there will always be some semantic features or features distinguishing grammatically metaphorical forms and their non-metaphorical counterparts (Halliday, 1985)
Halliday (1994) divides grammatical metaphor into metaphors of mood (including modality) and metaphors of transitivity In terms of semantic functions, these are, respectively, interpersonal metaphors and ideational metaphors
Thompson (1996) classifies grammatical metaphor into logical and experiential metaphors, interpersonal metaphors and textual metaphors
In the following sections we will adopt Halliday‟s view in classifying grammatical metaphors into interpersonal and ideational metaphors
Ideational grammatical metaphors are called metaphors of transitivity The grammatical variation between congruent and incongruent forms here applied to transitivity configurations, and can be analyzed in terms of the functional structure of these configurations Expression of ideational meanings is extended in important ways beyond their default encoding The default expression of ideational meanings is as follows: Process is represented by clauses; Qualities by adjectives and Entities by nouns or noun phrases In principle, metaphorical expressions can be represented in either of two ways, either (1) taking them at their face value, or (2) interpreting them in their congruent form (Halliday,
1994: 346) In order to bring out the metaphorical nature of an incongruent expression, it is compared to an equivalent congruent realization For example:
The year the villa was completed saw the end of 20 years of war with
In the year the villa was completed 20 years of war with
Circumstance: Temporal Actor Process: Material
As we cannot always decide how best to unpack metaphorical meanings, we can identify the main ways in which grammatical metaphor arises One of the most important is nominalization, i.e the turning of clausal patterns into nominal ones This type of grammatical metaphor plays a key role because it involves a realignment of all other elements of the message Halliday discusses nominalization- the drift towards
“thinginess”- as a category of ideational metaphor Halliday (1994: 352) points out the role of nominalization as follows:
Nominalizing is the single most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor By this device, processes (congruently worded as verbs) and properties (congruently worded as adjectives) are reworded metaphorically as nouns; instead of functioning in the clause, as a Process or Attribute, they function as Thing in the nominal group
Ideational metaphors are found in all types of adult discourse Complete congruency and complete incongruency are rare (Halliday, 1994: 342) In general, Halliday argues, written language has more ideational metaphors than spoken discourse In written language, various lexical meanings are packed into one single nominal group and metaphor of transivity makes writing more vivid and expressive
Interpersonal grammatical metaphor focuses on the area of Modality and Mood
In Metaphors of Modality, the grammatical variation which occurs is based on the logical-semantic relationship of projection Whereas modal meanings are congruently realized in modal elements in the clause (i.e modal operators, modal adjuncts or mood adjuncts), interpersonal metaphors are defined by Halliday (1994) as expressing modal meaning outside the clause, for instance, by means of an additional projecting clause That is metaphors of modality are explicit realizations of modal meanings For example:
I think it’s going to rain (vs Congruent: It is probably going to rain.)
In Metaphors of Mood, a mood meaning is not expressed in the clause, but rather as an explicit element outside the clause The incongruent transference in the process of the realization of the speech functions is metaphor of mood One speech function can be realized by various moods and one mood can realized different speech functions For examples:
I wouldn’t…if I was you (Congruent: don’t…)
(1) Modulated command, typically functioning as advice:
She’d better… (Congruent: she should…)
In conclusion, the purpose of using metaphor is to get the lexis and the grammar the way the speaker wants it in order to produce a certain effect In addition, the use of metaphor presents an alternative way of constructing a picture of reality; we may even find an ideologically charged representation in the choice of metaphor.
The Language of Political Discourse
Politics is concerned with the power: the power to make decisions, to control resources, to control other‟s people behavior, and to control their values (Jones, J & Peccei, J S., 2004:
36) According to Van Dijk the notion of „Political Discourse‟ does not remain limited to the „institutional‟ field of politics (e.g parliamentary discourse, election campaigns, party programs, speeches, etc.) but opens to all linguistic manifestations that may be considered to be political, provided that it is convincingly argued what makes them ‟political‟
Political discourse may be singled out as a prominent way of “doing politics” Indeed, most political actions (such as passing laws, decision making, meeting, campaigning, etc.) are largely discursive
The conception of language we need is that of discourse, language as a form of social practice, i.e language is a part of society, a social process, and a socially conditioned process Politics has its own code, a language variety particular to a specific group
Language is a means of communication, a means of representing and shaping argument and political argument is ideological, in that it comes from a series of beliefs The way language is used says a great deal about how the idea is shaped, thus when analyzing the language of a political text, it is important to look at the way the language reflects the ideological position of those who have created it Politicians choose their words carefully because they believe in the power of language to influence thought, and they believe implicitly in linguistic relativity Politicians throughout the ages have owed much of their success to their skillful use of rhetoric, whereby they attempt to persuade their audience of the validity of their view by their subtle use of elegant and persuasive language Some of the linguistic rituals, which are significant features of various political activities and regarded as potentially ideological, are as following (van Dijk, Fairclough, N., 2001, Jones,
(i) Presuppositions are the implicit, taken-for-granted-to-be-true assumptions embedded within a sentence or phrase
(ii) Implicatures allow the politician‟s audience to make assumption about the existence of information that is not made explicit in what the politician actually says The use of presupposition and implicature is particularly useful in political discourse because it can make it more difficult for the audience to identify and (if they wish to) reject views communicated in this way, and can persuade people to take something for granted which is actually open to debate
(iii) Rhetoric is defined as „the art of using language to persuade or influence others; the body of rules to be observed by a speaker or writer so that he may express himself with eloquence‟ (Oxford Dictionary as cited in Jones, J & Peccei, J S., 2004: 45) Politicians often use rhetorical figures such as repetition, parallelism, additions, deletion, euphemism and substitution, which is the case for irony, metonymy and metaphor to increase the impact of their ideas
(iv) Syntax : somewhat less obvious and more subtle than lexical style is the political manipulation of syntactic style, such as the use of pronouns, variations of words order, the use of specific syntactic categories, active and passive constructions, nominalization, clause embedding, sentence complexity and other ways such as the list of three, or contrastive pairs to express underlying meaning in sentence structures Prominently, Nominalization has a central role to play in political communication One effect of this grammatical form is that crucial aspects of the process are left unspecified: there is no indication of the timing of the process; modality; and often an agent and/ or a patient
Syntactic structures are able to put more or less emphasis, focus or prominence on specific words, phrases or clauses, and thus indirectly contribute to corresponding semantic stress on specific meanings, as a function of the political interests and allegiances of the speaker or writer (Fowler et al 1979, Kress & Hodge 1993 as cited in van Dijk) A close analysis of texts in the next sections in terms of such features, particularly nominalization can contribute to our understanding of power relations and ideological process in discourse
Language only gains power in the hand of the powerful; language is not powerful per se
Often enough, a specific language even symbolizes the group or person in power, and fights about the status or discrimination of one or the other language, and Politics is inevitably connected to power- the ability of its holders to exact the compliance or obedience of other individual to their will (The New Dictionary of Modern Thought as cited in Jones, J & Peccei, J S., 2004: 10) The common-sense assumptions which are implicit in the conventions according to which people interact linguistically, and of which people are generally not consciously aware are embedded in the forms of language that are used, according to Fairclough, are ideologies Ideologies are closely linked to power, because the nature of the ideological assumptions depends on the power relations which underlie the conventions; and because they are a means of legitimizing existing social relations and differences of power Also, ideologies are closely linked to language, because using language is the commonest form of social behaviour (Fairclough, N., 2001: 2) The exercise of power, in modern society, is increasingly achieved through ideology, and more particularly through the ideological workings of language The nature of the power relations acted here is often not clear, and the discourse involves hidden power for the favored interpretations and wordings are those of the power-holders in our societies.
Some Basic Characteristics of American and Vietnamese Culture
The Americans have strong individualism, especially in economic environment of capitalism (Levine & Adelman, 1993 as cited in Nguyễn, Q., 2002:213) Because of the strong individualism, the Westerns or Americans have the psychology of individual- respecting, wanting to be free to make choice, to pursue their own ideas, which display the
“ego” or the “ironclad, hungry for success” in dealing with the outside world as they like solving the conflicts by using arm forces and always keep in mind the ambition of having the opponent‟s absolute submission (Trần, N.T., 2008) Besides, the American themselves always proclaims the virtues of national independence and economic development, they have the habits of seeking to remark the region in the US image and pretensions about the universality and superiority of American ideas and ways of doing things (Douglas, 2004)
They want to facilitate American hegemony and the expansion of US power around the world Most Americans have continually constructed self-image for themselves as citizens of benevolent world power acting to support universal principles and interests (Melani, McA., 2005) Regarding the concept of the “ego”, the Anglicists objectify the “ego” and regard it as an object (Nguyễn, Q., 2002); therefore, in Anglicist language and culture, objectiveness encroaches Finally, according to Trần Ngọc Thêm (1999), Western people including Americans tend to express “action or dynamic property” by the expression of
Vietnamese culture was deeply rooted in wet-rice cultivating farming and the wet-rice agricultural-originated culture is the prominent characteristic of Vietnamese culture‟s identity and governs other characteristics The basic characteristics of Vietnamese culture are as following (Trần, Tr.D., 2001 & Phan, M.C, 2008): (i) having the spirit of loving the home, the village, the country and respecting the nature; (ii) living by the love-based rule;
(iii) having the collective thinking way; (iv) flexibility in their community-organizing decided by the collective, dialectical and thoughtful thinking way of love-based farmers, which allows them to adjust to be suitable (reasonable) in each specific situation The love- based living regulation and the desire of having a peaceful life have made their flexible living way to be more profound, and have become the peaceable psychological foundation in dealing with all kind of social relations; (v) having harmonized behaviour in receiving cultural flows from the outside world and the soft (flexible), peaceable attitude in dealing the pressure from the outside world; (vi) and having the patriotic doctrine, consciousness of the national spirit and traditional undauntedness and indomitability in struggle because of long and long construction, safeguarding of the country and struggles against the enemies What‟s more, Vietnamese are always aware of the “ego”, they appear as the subject of the world and the thing they usually take into consideration is not the thing itself but the relationship between them and the thing Therefore, according to Nguyễn Quang
(2002), in Vietnamese language and culture, subjectiveness is more prominent The last point, according to Trần Ngọc Thêm (1999), is that Vietnamese tend to use “dynamic property” to express “stationary”.
NOMINALIZATION IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE: A GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Introduction
Nominalization is a relatively familiar term in modern linguistics It can be found occur frequently in English and Vietnamese For examples:
(1) FBI agents arrested Bill in New York → the arrest of Bill by FBI agents in New York (2)Các đặc vụ FBI bắt Bill ở New York → Việc các đặc vụ FBI bắt Bill ở New York
This kind of nominalizing metaphor probably evolved first in scientific and technical registers, where it played a dual role: first, it made it possible to construct hierarchies of technical terms, and second, to develop an argument step by step, using complex passages
„packaged‟ in nominal form as Themes Gradually, it has developed into most other varieties of adult discourse and becomes “a mark of prestige and power” (Halliday, 1994:
353) According to Thomson (1996: 170), nominal groups have two qualities which are useful First, a noun typically refers to a „thing‟, i.e something which exists and the meaning can now be treated as existing, as a kind of abstract thing Second, nominalization is available to function as a participant in another process, and also as Theme
Furthermore, nominalization is in harmony with ideology of science, and of academic, formal writing because it allows processes to be objectified, non-finite and unarguable
This is intimately connected with the fact that it is “thingified‟ by being expressed as a noun For reasons mentioned above, in linguistic terms, academic, formal writing shows preference for noninalization which represents “fossilised” processes whose primary function is to express not dynamic action but the relationship between the nominals.
Nominalization in English
2.2.1 What is Nominalization in English?
Nominalization is a prevalent linguistic phenomenon in English as Fowler said, “English is a sort of nominalized language: (1991: 79) There are many definitions on nominalization
Nominalization is a process of turning a verb or an adjective into a noun (Quirk et al,
1985) In Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics (1996), nominalization refers to any derivation of nouns from another word class, usually verbs or adjectives According to Halliday (1985), nominalization refers to any element or group of elements that is made to function as a noun or a nominal group in the clause, including clauses (finite or non- finite clauses), nominalized adjectives (the so-called de-adjectival) or verbs (de-verbal)
Another definition offered by Dik is that nominalization is an embedded construction which has one or more properties in common with a primary, nominal term (1997: 157)
He distinguishes two types of nominalization: headed, the embedded construction adjoined to a nominal head with a rather general meaning such as “fact”, “thing”, or
“circumstance”; and non-headed, the predicate itself taking on certain nominal properties
Based on the above definitions on nominalization, we can see that in English nominalization can occur at the different levels such as at the word level (Lexical nominalization) or at the clause level (Clausal nominalization) For examples:
(1) …the argument to the contrary (Halliday, 1994)
(2) John deplored that Peter had to leave (Dik, 1997)
(3) I disapproved of John’s drinking (Dik, 1997)
2.2.2 Categories of Nominalization in English 2.2.2.1 Lexical nominalization
Lexical nominalization: refers to any nominalized word or word group which is derived from verbs (named de-verbal nominalization) or adjectives (named de-adjectival nominalization) Most derived nouns are abstract in meaning Lexical nominalizations are created by adding suffixes to the roots Nominalizing suffixes in English are listed below; the symbols V and A in the list show whether the noun is derived from a verb or an adjective respectively
(various meanings) action or instance of V-ing action or state of V-ing, state of being A a person who V-s, something used for V-ing state or quality of being A state of being a person (various meanings) a person/ thing that V-s (various meanings) wastage, postage, orphanage arrival, denial, proposal assistance, resemblance, experience, dependence, difference, ignorance assistant, consultant, coolant accuracy, adequacy, infancy boredom, freedom, wisdom devotee, absentee, employee actor, writer, visitor bravery, refinery, robbery likelihood
-ism -ity -ment -ness -tion -ure state of being A action/ instance of V-ing, place or material ideology, movement, tendency state or quality of being A action or instance of V-ing state or quality of being A action or instance of V-ing feeling, meeting, training building, landing, crossing criticism, capitalism, Marxism ability, activity, responsibility argument, movement, treatment blindness, fairness, happiness communication, education, closure, departure, pressure
(Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 89-90) De-verbal nominalizations can be: the agent of the verb (the nouns with suffixes: -ant, -er,
-or, -ar,); the patient of the verb (the nouns with suffixes: -ee); the process and result of the verb (the nouns with suffixes: -age, -al, -ance, -tion, -ment); or the instrument of the verb (the nouns with suffixes: -age, -ant) De-adjectival nominalizations refer to: abstract concepts having the quality described by the adjectives (the nouns with suffixes: -ity, -ness,
-ism); or person having the quality described by the adjectives (the nouns suffixes: -ist)
Another way to derive nouns from other word classes is known as conversion (or „zero derivation‟) (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 91); that is no affix is added to the base-the root, but the base itself is converted into a different word class, usually from a verb or adjective into a noun For examples: conversion base meaning(s) of example of converted noun from converted noun adjectives (A) verbs (V) hopeful white catch cheat walk someone who is A someone who is A something that is V-ed someone who V-s act of V-ing presidential hopefuls they speak like the whites do in the South they had a fine catch of fish
…accused him of being a cheat we can go for a walk later (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 91)
Derived nouns can occupy the functions of nouns such as subject, object, complement of sentences, and complement in prepositional phrases For example:
The conventionalist system lacks the capacity to reach anything like the flexibility of pragmatism, because any relaxation would inevitably involve the defeat of publicly encouraged expectation (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009) 2.2.2.2 Clausal nominalization
Clausal nominalization: refers to any finite or non-finite clause which functions as a noun in a clause These kinds of clauses, complement clauses, include that-clauses, wh-clauses, to-infinitive clauses, and V-ing clauses (Lock, 1996) For examples:
(1) That Aristotle appealed to such principles is not surprising
(2) Really understanding this aspect of grammar needs a fair bit of work
In addition to the four main types, there are two less productive types of complement clause: bare-infinitive clauses, which are a special type of infinitive clause, and ed-clauses, which are rare Both of them are non-finite clauses (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 308); for examples:
(3) The film would help identify participants at the weekend party
Complement clauses are also called nominal clauses, because they often occupy a noun phrase slot in a clause, such as subject, object, or predicative
That-clauses can appear in post-predicate position which is the most common type of that- clauses (accounting for 80 percent of all that-clauses-Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 312), in extraposed construction, or serve as subject predicate and noun complements For examples:
(1) I didn‟t agree that he should be compelled to do singing
(2) It‟s a wonder that the tree’s alive, but it is
(3) The truth is that country is now specializing more in processing and marketing
(4) The traditional belief that veal calves should be kept in warm environment is unscientific
There are three types of wh-complement clauses: interrogative clauses, nominal relative clauses, and exclamatives Interrogative clauses and nominal relative clauses use the same wh-words, except that whether is used only with interrogatives Nominal relative clauses can be paraphrased with a general head noun and relative clause Exclamative wh-clauses begin with how + adjective or what as a pre-determiner (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009:
322) Exclamative wh-clauses are less common than the other types
Wh-clauses can occur as subject, object, subject predicate or as complement of adjectives, prepositions or nouns For examples:
(1) I was thinking how nice you are, what a good actor, and what a nice man
(2) What he did was surprising
(3) That‟s why I returned to the village
(4) It was incredible what had happened to them
(5) His parents were proud of what he had done
(6) We have no knowledge of where it came from
To infinitive complement clauses are more common in the written register than in conversation They are used to report speech, mental states, intention, desires, efforts, perceptions, and other general actions They often occur in post-predicate and subject predicate position However, they can also occur in subject position and in extraposed construction, or function as nouns complement (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 328) For examples:
(1)I‟m just trying to get away early
(2)A fourth challenge is to develop management arrangements within hospital
(3)I‟m not sure it‟s necessary to ask you not to pass any information on to the
(4)[…] „To take away the profits of crime is one thing; to seize the assets that have no connection with crime is another
(5) Last year the society‟s committee made a decision to relaunch in a bid to attract more members
Ing-complement clauses serve a wide range of functions They are often used with verbs like begin, start, and stop to convey aspect However, they are also used to report speech acts, cognitive states, perceptions, emotions, and other actions Ing-clauses are common in the written registers like fiction, news and academic prose than in conversation (Biber,
Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 344) Ing-clauses most often occur in post-predicate position In addition, they can occur in subject position or as subject predicates and noun complement
(1) He began paging through old newspapers
(2) There is no reason why women should not be good at selling cars
(3) Really understanding this aspect of grammar needs a fair bit of work
(4) My uncle‟s hobby is collecting fish
(5) He had no intention of singing at anyone’s twenty-first birthday
1.4.3 Nominalization in Vietnamese 1.4.3.1 What is Nominalization in Vietnamese?
Nominalization is a sub-type of grammatical metaphor (or the transitivity of word class) (Diệp, Q.B., 2005) The transitivity of word class is a way of forming new words without the change of the root There are two ways of transferring: first, by adding a word (the so- called morpheme or nominalizer) such as cái, nỗi, niềm, sự, việc, etc which signifies the word class, here the noun class, to the root; secondly, by shifting a word of one class (i.e adjective or verb) into another word class (i.e noun) without any change of the root or any help of other morpheme The latter must be realized in context or the ability to combine with other words (Nguyễn, V.T., 1976: 84) as in “Vượt khó được mới giỏi” & “Điều đó rất khó thực hiện” By nominalization, an event, an action or a state is turned into a participant and can be used in different position in a sentence, fulfilling any syntactic role as any other noun such as subject, object, complement or adverbial Nominalization is a real fact of Vietnamese, it accounts for the diversification of syntactic structures in Vietnamese and it is considered among Vietnamese-speaking people that nominalization is characteristic for official and socio-political writings On the whole, by means of the adaptation of certain morphemes, nomimalized nouns can be found at the word level (Lexical nominalization) or at the clause level (Clausal nominalization) For examples:
(1) Việc điều tra vụ giết người đang được cảnh sát tiến hành
(2) Điều anh nói làm cô ấy rất buồn
1.4.3.2 Categories of Nominalization in Vietnamese 1.4.3.2.1 Lexical Nominalization
Concluding remarks
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) has long been interested in the language of politics for a number of reasons It is one of the most instantly recognizable but not easy to comprehend Additionally, it performs distinct functions in society, claims a distinct set of users and has distinct grammatical and textual structures Because SFL is particularly concerned with describing the relationship between language and social context, the issues about political language tend to focus on the relationship between the language system and human ideologies SFL has attempted to map out the meaning potential of political discourse Such explorations allow us to understand the functionality of political language
In this chapter, the emphasis is put on the analysis of nominalization in political discourse with a case study on two political discourses: one is the speech of President Bush after September 11 th event, the other is the speech of President Nguyen Minh Triet on Thang Long-Ha Noi 1000 th birthday anniversary After all, we will have a full understanding of nominalization: its linguistic structures and its functions in the discourse A clear understanding of nominalization allows us to understand the speaker‟s/writer‟s ideologies and the hidden power in the discourse
3.2 Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech: Address to Congress (September 20 th ,
On September 11 th , 2001, two hijacked aircraft crashed into the World Trade Center in New York City, causing great damage Another plane hit the Pentagon, headquarters for the U.S military, outside Washington D.C A fourth plane, believed to be heading for Washington D.C., crashed in the rural Pennsylvania when passengers attempted to retake control from the hijackers Almost 3,000 people were killed in the attacks The U.S government blamed the attacks on terrorists Speculation centered around the al Qaeda organization and its leader Osama Bin Laden Bin Laden was believed to be operating out of Afghanistan, a nation controlled by the Taliban As from the very first day of the attacks on the Twin Towers, on September 20 th , 2001, President George W Bush spoke a joint session of Congress in the U.S Capitol His speech served many purposes It stated the feelings of the nation as well as the government‟s intention to confront and defeat those that had caused such great damage to the country in an implicit way It honored those who
NOMINALIZATION IN POLITICAL DISCOURSES IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE
Introduction
Systemic functional linguistics (SFL) has long been interested in the language of politics for a number of reasons It is one of the most instantly recognizable but not easy to comprehend Additionally, it performs distinct functions in society, claims a distinct set of users and has distinct grammatical and textual structures Because SFL is particularly concerned with describing the relationship between language and social context, the issues about political language tend to focus on the relationship between the language system and human ideologies SFL has attempted to map out the meaning potential of political discourse Such explorations allow us to understand the functionality of political language
In this chapter, the emphasis is put on the analysis of nominalization in political discourse with a case study on two political discourses: one is the speech of President Bush after September 11 th event, the other is the speech of President Nguyen Minh Triet on Thang Long-Ha Noi 1000 th birthday anniversary After all, we will have a full understanding of nominalization: its linguistic structures and its functions in the discourse A clear understanding of nominalization allows us to understand the speaker‟s/writer‟s ideologies and the hidden power in the discourse
3.2 Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech: Address to Congress (September 20 th ,
On September 11 th , 2001, two hijacked aircraft crashed into the World Trade Center in New York City, causing great damage Another plane hit the Pentagon, headquarters for the U.S military, outside Washington D.C A fourth plane, believed to be heading for Washington D.C., crashed in the rural Pennsylvania when passengers attempted to retake control from the hijackers Almost 3,000 people were killed in the attacks The U.S government blamed the attacks on terrorists Speculation centered around the al Qaeda organization and its leader Osama Bin Laden Bin Laden was believed to be operating out of Afghanistan, a nation controlled by the Taliban As from the very first day of the attacks on the Twin Towers, on September 20 th , 2001, President George W Bush spoke a joint session of Congress in the U.S Capitol His speech served many purposes It stated the feelings of the nation as well as the government‟s intention to confront and defeat those that had caused such great damage to the country in an implicit way It honored those who had died in the attacks, and those who were struggling to deal with the aftermath The president also sought to reassure Americans that they were safe and that steps were being taken to prevent future attacks Nevertheless, the central massage of the speech was that the United States remained strong and unafraid, and that it intended to eliminate terrorist threats The President went on to make it clear to the American people and the world that a protracted struggle against not only al Qaeda, but also world terrorism as whole, was underway and not only American‟s pursuit, but the world‟s as well President Bush‟s speech helped to honor the fallen and reassure the living; however, he did not convince the Taliban to give in to his commands The America was, in the end, successful in driving the Taliban out of power and destroying much of the terrorist‟s infrastructure
It now seems necessary to identify the grammatical metaphor of nominalization that can be found in Bush‟s speech We should bear in mind that instances of grammatical metaphors do not typically occur in isolation and sometimes there is some kind of interdependent
There are 153 cases of nominalization including both lexical nominalization and clausal nominalization Nominalization appears 230 times in all in the speech This speech has 77 nominalizations per 1000 words
Lexical Nominalization Clausal Nominalization De- verbal
De-adjectival Conversion Finite clause Non-finite clause
Table 1: Types of Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech
The table shows that there are more lexical nominalizations than the clausal nominalizations (59 % and 41 % respectively) Lexical nominalization includes de-verbal, de-adjectival and conversion, of which de-verbal nominalization and conversion or converted nouns that are all derived from verbs account for 49 % Verbs and adjectives are reified to be realized as things, entities or concepts Nominalization at clausal level is represented by finite and non-finite clauses (12% and 29% respectively) The clauses, which are that-clause, wh-clause, to-infinitive clause and ing-clause are embedded to function as Head The nominalization of non-finite clauses can signify an act, the name of action, event or other phenomenon; or a locution Meanwhile that of finite clauses represents a fact or an idea As can be seen, nominalization of non-finite clauses accounts for more than double that of finite clauses This is because of register factor: non-finite clauses are commonly used in academic prose whereas finite clauses are relatively rare in this prose (Biber, Conrad, & Leech, 2009: 350) Another reason is that finite clauses combine with relatively few verbs; meanwhile, non-finite clauses combine with a number of different verbs In conclusion, most of nominalizations are derived from verbs or clauses, because by turning processes into nouns making clauses function as heads, the speaker can convey entities and typically assume the existence of such entities These nominalizations can become participants or circumstances of other processes, and somewhere they can be used as modifier or qualifier of nouns or noun groups All the transposition can be attributed to such functions as ideational function, textual function and interpersonal function The next sections will deal with nominalization in terms of these metafunctions
In terms of semantic roles or participants and circumstance according to Halliday‟s view, there is following distribution:
Table 2: Semantic Roles of Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech
Totally, there are 188 nominalizations which appear as participants or circumstance of processes In this speech, they often function as circumstance (29%), goal (18%) and phenomenon (12 %) With these functions, the nominalizations, which presupposed real existence, stability, can undergo other processes or modify the processes They rarely appear as identified or patient, or in existential process (0.5%) Other nominalizations can be range, attribute, verbiage, carrier, actor or identifier of processes
The features associated with nominalization are ideological features (i.e deleting agency, reifying, positing reified concepts as agents, concise referencing and maintaining unequal power relation) First of all, nominalization is used to delete agency Fowler (1991) writes that nominalization offers opportunities for deleting information, such as information about the participants, time and modality Nominalization is a radical syntactic transformation of a clause, which has extensive structural consequences, and offers substantial ideological opportunities To understand this, reflect on how much information goes unexpressed in a derived nominal, compared with a full clause: for example, “assistance” (line212) with a full clause “X assists Y” Deleted in the nominal form are participants, indication of time, and of modality as well; therefore, the speaker‟s views are as the truth or desirability of the proposition By using nominalization, the President Bush implies that America will certainly receive the assistance, and not just from an individual but from the whole world
Secondly, nominalization helps create reifying The process of nominalization turns verbs or adjectives into nouns (things, concepts or people) Nominalization facilitates reification because the processes assume the status of things-impersonal, inanimate, and processes are described as the name of linguistic entity whose existence is taken for granted; therefore, inarguable By means of nominalization, speakers/writers typically assume the existence of such entities, then the discourse is no longer describing actions, it focuses on objects or concepts, especially, in political discourse many nominal groups are concepts such as freedom, leadership, extremism, security, pluralism, stability, etc
Also, the most important function of nominalization is to objectify opinion, especially, in this persuasive speech, so as to make it more difficult for the hearers to disagree With such nominalized groups as attacks, destruction, their pretenses, the defeat, strikes, what the
Mafia is to crime, remarking the world, imposing its radical beliefs, fight, the endurance of rescuers, his unity, responsibilities, security, tolerance, stability, confidence, hopes, struggles, etc the President Bush wants the hearers who are not only the American people but also the people around the world to agree with what he has stated about what the terrorists have caused to the American and what the American has done and will do, which are objective and unchangeable things, to approve of and support his and the government‟s intention of the struggle against terrorism for the American‟s and the whole world‟s freedom In another a noun group “the decency of a loving and giving people”, the effect in the use of nominalization is to take information for granted and thus presuppose that the qualities conveyed by the noun are inherent to the American people
Another feature of nominalization is positing reified concepts as agents Speakers/writers can then use the abstract, reified concepts as agents of processes to perform actions
Accordingly, nominalized forms appear as agents who do things (12%) According to Hallidayan grammar, this is an incongruent use of language Nominalization, through generalization and abstraction, can obfuscate agency, and therefore, responsibility Here the writer attributes the action of obfuscating to nominalization Such nominalizations as our war (line104), our response (line 133) show that processes are construed as if they were entities taking the roles of agents The first noun group as a thematized existent presupposes that American will certainly war against Al Qaeda and terrorism but does not state explicitly who declares, leads the war, take responsibilities of the war or how to war
Nominalization also makes it possible to develop an argument step by step using packed nominal groups such as the great achievement of our time, the dark threat of violence, or the great hope of every time Another example reads as follows:
Our grief has turned to anger and anger to resolution (line17)… As a symbol of
America's resolve (line 221)… But our resolve must not pass (line 239) Here, the change consists in the creation of a parallel construction, in a chain and the noun resolution has turned from an attribute resolve to goal or affected, then the noun resolve become the agent of other process The use of nouns in a kind of chain structure seems to highlight the steps in the process leading the American government from a passive attitude into a proactive one There are some other cases of this parallel construction in the speech such as: a fringe form of Islamic extremism, a fringe movement, every tool of intelligence, every instrument of law enforcement, every financial influence, etc
Nominalizations are also accompanied by the rules of three to make the arguments complete Examples are as follow:
But its goal is not making money; its goal is remaking the world and imposing its radical beliefs on people everywhere (line 55,56)
They hate our freedoms: our freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom to vote and assemble and disagree with each other (line 109,110)
This is the world's fight This is civilization's fight This is the fight of all who believe in progress and pluralism, tolerance and freedom (line 166-7) The use of parallel structures and of the rule of three helps to build up the President‟s arguments without any disagreements from the hearers and the audience
In terms of interpersonal function, nominalizations appear as the Subject, Complement or Adjunct of the process
Table 3: Interpersonal Analysis of Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech
Grammatical metaphor of nominalization can also make meanings about role relations and attitudes between participants, their status and their feelings about what is said
Nominalization allows for the expansion of the interpersonal semantic system and thus provides the speakers with additional, powerful resources for enacting social roles in the complex network of relations that make up the fabric of community of any kind
Nominalization in President Nguyen Minh Triet’s Speech: Diễn Văn Khai Mạc Đại Lễ 1000 năm Thăng Long (October, 10 th , 2010)
Lễ 1000 năm Thăng Long (October, 10 th , 2010)
Draped in red Communist banners and propaganda slogans, Ha Noi, Vietnam‟s capital, was opening an extravagant ceremony to celebrate its 1000 th birthday The ever biggest national-level event, the most important event in the 10-day program to celebrate the
1000 th birthday anniversary of Thang Long-Ha Noi, which received UNESCO‟s certificate to be recognized as a World Cultural Heritage Site, started at 7.30 a.m of October 10 th at the historical Ba Dinh Square Party, State and Government leaders, ambassadors, representatives from international organizations in Vietnam and a large number of Vietnamese attended the grand millennial anniversary Ba Dinh square was flooded with banners and flowers At 8.00 a.m, State President Nguyễn Minh Triết delivered a speech praising the proud history of Vietnamese nation and the 1000-year-old capital of Ha Noi A millennium ago, in 1010, King Ly Thai To transferred the imperial capital from Hoa Lu to Thang Long (nowadays Ha Noi), opening a new state for the development of Viet Nam
Experiencing its 1000 years of ups and downs, Thang Long- Ha Noi is always been united by patriotism, indomitable spirit, heroism and glorious feats of arms The capital is the county‟s heart and the place of convergence of national traditions and values Thang Long-
Ha Noi is a place that represents the aspiration for peace, friendship and solidarity with all nations around the world The capital will continue to develop and flourish in the future, being a worthy heart and the capital of the Vietnamese nation- the capital of heroism, peace and friendship That is the President‟s main ideology, is what he emphasizes to the listeners That is not only the President‟s hearted words but also Vietnamese people‟s and the nation‟s
In President Nguyễn Minh Triết‟s speech, there are 45 cases of nominalization including both lexical nominalization and clausal nominalization Nominalizations are used 59 times in all in the speech There are 38 nominalizations per 1000 words Table 1 gives a detailed description of types of the nominalization
Type Lexical Nominalization Clausal nominalization
Conversion De-verbal De- adjectival
Table 5: Types of Nominalization in President N.M Triet’s Speech
It can be seen that nominalizations at lexical level account for the majority (98.3%) while nominalization at clause level is rarely used (occupies only 1.7%) Among five types of lexical nominalizations, de-clausal nominalization, and conversion appear frequently (makes up 30.5% and 28.8% respectively) One typical feature of de-clausal nominalizations is that they usually contain the word “của” to express the meaning of possession The converted nouns are mainly derived from adjective (16 out of 17) De- adjectival nominalizations occupy for only 8.5%, ranking last The last type named
“other”, a noun which is equivalent to the verb or adjective in term of meaning, ranks the fourth (11.9%) These nominal entities can become participants or circumstance of others processes, fulfilling any function of a noun and serve other purposes such as deleting agency, concise referencing and exerting power In addition, nominalization can be used to express a certain extend of interpersonal function as well as to create textual function The following sections provide a deep look into these metafunctions
59 nominalizations are distributed as following:
Table 6: Semantic Roles of Nominalization in President N.M Triet’s Speech
As can be seen from the table, nominalizations are distributed not evenly for different semantic roles Nominalizations used as circumstance of the process rank the biggest (30.5%), followed by as goal (20.4%) The frequency of appearing as phenomenon and as identifier of the process is the same (13.5%) Nominalizations functioning as carrier occupy only 7.0% They seldom appear as verbiage, range or actor There are several ideological features associating with the nominalization, an efficient tool of language to serve the President‟s purposes
First of all, some of the nominalizations-abstract and reified concepts- are terms for specific political events or politics notion, for examples: hữu nghị, thăng trầm, anh hùng, hòa bình, tinh thần độc lập tự chủ, chủ nghĩa nhân văn, khát vọng hòa bình, etc Thăng trầm is a term to indicate the struggles for independence during 1000 years, the difficulties and the hard time Vietnam has experienced to construct and develop the nation like Vietnam nowadays Tinh thần độc lập tự chủ is a politic notion to symbolize the Vietnamese, who always have independent, self-control spirit and always unite to struggle for their independence and self-determination These conceptual nominalizations act as powerful referents in the discourse and serve as ad hoc names for concepts that will be referred again, thus avoid long descriptions and create lexical density or condensation of the clause What‟s more, meaning now can be treated as existing, as a kind of abstract thing
Secondly, nominalization helps delete agency; for examples, lời chào mừng nồng nhiệt, lời chúc tốt đẹp nhất, anh hùng, nhiều khó khăn, thách thức, etc For the first two groups, the
President implies the greetings and wishes are of the Party, the State, the Government as well as of the whole nation Anh hùng is used as a noun to emphasize the real existence and the long-lasting of heroic quality of the Vietnamese The last two nominalizations can help the speaker delete the actors causing difficulties and challenges Besides, thanks to nominalizing process that allows the process to be objectified, such nominalizations as một lòng sắt son yêu nước, một tình yêu thương vững bền và sâu sắc, lòng biết ơn vô hạn, công khai sáng, công xây dựng và bảo vệ Thủ đô, etc become inarguable, unchallengeable
One typical feature of nominal groups such as tình cảm sâu nặng của mỗi chúng ta, cuộc sống hòa bình của nhân loại, sự phồn vinh của mỗi dân tộc, hạnh phúc của mỗi người, tinh thần nhân đạo và hòa hiếu của dân tộc, ect is that they often contain the word “của” and the possessor According to Cù Đình Tú (2001), political language is the product of political activities Vietnamese politics and the nation nowadays has experienced 1000 years of constructing, struggling, safeguarding and developing, so political language of Vietnamese to some extend has its own properties: the acting of politics, conciseness and overtness of political stance, encouraging and urging people to actively participate in the national issues
In terms of interpersonal function, nominalizations appear as the Subject, Complement or Adjunct of the process
Table7: Interpersonal Analysis of Nominalization in President N.M Triet’s Speech
The table represents nominalizations mainly function as complement of the clauses (occupying 61%) Nominalizations in the position of adjunct make up 30.5% Ranking last is nominalizations act as subject (account for only 8.5%) In the speech, all nominalizations are used in declarative As we can see, a nominalized process is non-finite and by removing the option of Mood, it has been made non-negotiable Being expressed as a noun, a process is “thingified”, thus it can not only become a general truth but unassailable, certain truth When nominalizations function as complements or adjuncts of the processes such as hạnh phúc, tư thế vững vàng, tinh thần “cả nước vì Thủ đô, Thủ đô vì cả nước”, đoàn kết một lòng, etc., it is more difficult for the hearers to disagree with it In persuasive text, it is a very common technique Here, the President makes himself have the power of an independent person, on behalf of an independent nation to declare the world of the nation‟s independence, the nation‟s heroism, the nation‟s great achievements, the nation‟s long-standing culture, the nation‟s 1000-year vitality and the nation‟s desire for peace, friendship and solidarity with all nations around the world The President not only succeeds in persuading the hearers to agree with him, but also in arousing the national spirit, the nation‟s strength to actively participate in the cause of safeguarding and developing the country He also appeals the nations around the world to support Vietnam because Vietnam is a long-standing cultured, heroic, peace-loving and friendly nation
Table 8: Theme- Rheme Analysis of Nominalization in President N.M Triet’s Speech
Nominalizations which are available to function as a participant or an adjunct in another process can contribute much to thematic structure As can be seen from the table, nominalizations can function as Theme (account for 8.5%), as Rheme (91.5%) Therefore we find in formal text a meaning is brought in as a full clause, and is then encapsulated in a nominalization which serves as the starting point for the next clause For example:
Việt Nam là một dân tộc anh hùng, Hà Nội là một Thủ đô anh hùng của Việt Nam, anh hùng trong chiến đấu và anh hùng trong lao động Anh hùng vì độc lập, tự do của Tổ quốc, anh hùng để mưu cầu hạnh phúc cho nhân dân
Concluding Remarks
Nominalization is the main lexicogrammatical characteristic of the language of the two speeches It is a resource language used to condense information by expressing concepts in incongruent forms which are very valued as a way of expressing “objectification”, abstraction”, “reification”, “a mark of prestige and power” It is therefore has existential presupposition and ideological uses because of its potential mystification It helps conceal speaker‟s attitude or power relation between the speaker and the hearers Nominalization in these two speeches serves as an effective tool to fulfill the two Presidents‟ ideologies
Therefore, two different pictures have been built up clearly by using the same strategy namely, nominalization.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION: A CONTRASTIVE COMPARISON
Introduction
It is clear that language can be considered an invaluable treasure that tells very much about the world of which human beings are real masters Indeed, it is man that has played the key role in creating and developing such language To some extent, language reflects the physical environments of a society Therefore, language is the symbol of culture, while culture is the track of language The culture of a nation can be reflected in its language
Due to the universality of the language of human beings and the typical properties of the two languages-English and Vietnamese- here exist some similarities and differences between them regarding linguistic and cultural properties.
The Similarities and the Differences on Linguistic Properties
Nominalization in the two languages occurs at both word and clause level Lexical nominalization includes de-verbal, de-adjectival and conversion
Among lexical nominalizations, those having verbs as roots in English account for 35% while in Vietnamese only 18.6% As for the case of conversion, all converted nouns in English have the same forms with verbs On the contrary, in Vietnamese, the bases converted into nouns are mainly adjectives (16 out of 17) The prominent difference is that many nominal groups in Vietnamese having the structure: nominal prefix + adjective/verb + của + complement to express the meaning of possession occupying 30.5% The equivalent cases in English contain the preposition “of”, but they do not appear so frequently as in Vietnamese Another difference is that the concept of nominalization in Vietnamese also refers to a noun which is equivalent to the verb or adjective in term of meaning At clause level, clausal nominalizations in the English speech are used relatively often (41%) They include both finite and non-finite clauses In contrast, in the Vietnamese one there is only one case In short, most of nominalizations in English are derived from verbs or clauses containing verbs whereas nominalizations in Vietnam de-adjectival nominalizations account for a bit bigger proportion in comparison with de-verbal ones
What‟s more, nominalizations in English are used more often than in Vietnamese (77 and
38 nominalizations per 1000 words respectively) The reason is that English is a flexible language, nominalization is a common way of creating new nouns, and in effect creating new base form On the contrary, Vietnamese is an isolating, analytical and inflexible language, nominalization-one way of transitivity of word class- is a new mechanism of creating words of Vietnamese nowadays to meet the need of communicative activity and the development of the language However, the common feature is the pragmatic meanings of nominalizing process: expressing “objectification”, abstraction”, “reification” or
“mystification”; therefore, they have existential presupposition and ideological uses
Furthermore, nominalizations are available to function as participants of other processes and as Theme or Rheme In these two speeches, both speakers put nominalization in Rheme position (88% in English speech and 91.5% in Vietnamese speech) the speakers want to facilitate the expression of general truths, claims about the nature of world; therefore, they can avoid arguing or disagreeing Nominalization of processes also allows the processes to become the Head of a Nominal Group, or Modifier or Qualifier in a Nominal Group, which can be found in the English speech.
The Similarities and the Differences on Cultural Properties
It is a common knowledge that the aspect of language is the proof of culture Language is the initial, the door to go into the depth and the identity of culture; and the soul of nation
The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted Language is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties Culture is the idea, custom and beliefs of a community with a distinct language containing semantics Claire Kraamsch says in her book Language and culture (1998a: 3) that language expresses culture reality; language embodies culture reality and language symbolizes culture reality Cultures can develop multiple languages, or "borrow" languages from other cultures to use; not all such languages are co-equal in the culture Therefore, the language used in these speeches has both similarities and differences in terms of cultural properties
To begin with, both speakers obey the language of politics genre: conciseness, logic, political terms, persuasiveness, syntactic and rhetoric rules such as repetition, parallelism, the rule of three, etc Besides, the speakers have the habit of using a lot of nouns
First of all, there are more nominalizations in English than in Vietnamese That is because Western people tend to express “action or dynamic property” by the expression of
“stationary” Additionally, we often find the nominal groups containing the word “của” + complement (possessor) in Vietnamese The same phenomenon does not happen frequently in English The reason is that Vietnamese are always aware of the “ego”, they appear as the subject of the world In contrast, the Anglicists objectify the “ego” and regard it as an object Moreover, in Vietnamese language and culture, subjectiveness is more prominent while in Anglicist language and culture, objectiveness encroaches
Regarding the vocabulary used, there is a big difference in word choice which expresses different cultures and leads to different ideologies conveyed In the wake of the September
11 attacks, and on the American popular culture: having the virtues of national independence and economic development, the habits of seeking to remark the region in the
US image and pretensions about the universality and superiority of American ideas and ways of doing things, the Bush administration has been able to advance policies and invoke solidarities In this sense the American homeland is the planet, and we can find such noun groups expressing the American culture and the President‟s ideologies as our freedom, America‟s freedom, our war on terror, America‟s fight, the world‟s fight, civilization‟s fight, the fight of all, to uphold the values of America, a symbol of American prosperity, confidence, the great hope of every time, the advance of human freedom, great achievement of our time, the rightness of our cause, etc Such behaviour is quite appropriate with Western culture: ironclad, hungry for success in dealing with the outside world On the contrary, in the Vietnamese speech, nominal groups such as tình cảm sâu nặng của mỗi chúng ta, cuộc sống hòa bình của nhân loại, sự phồn vinh của mỗi dân tộc, hạnh phúc của mỗi người, một lòng sắt son yêu nước, một tình yêu thương vững bền và sâu sắc, anh hùng, hòa bình, hữu nghị, tinh thần nhân đạo và hòa hiếu của dân tộc, tinh thần yêu chuộng hòa bình của người Thăng Long-Hà Nội-Việt Nam, đoàn kết một long, khát vọng hòa bình, etc express Vietnamese culture and ideologies: love-based rule, the collective thinking way, flexibility, harmonized behaviour and the patriotic doctrine, consciousness of the national spirit and traditional undauntedness and indomitability
Furthermore, hidden power always governs the stylistic expressions of American politicians in general and President Bush in particular There is always an element of hidden power in American political speeches because of the American‟s strong individualism, the psychology of individual-respecting, wanting to be free to make choice, to pursue their own ideas Therefore, the speaker‟s political stances are often hidden, the
American hearers, who do not want to be controlled, but draw the conclusion themselves
However, this power seems to be softened by some expressions as “fellow”, “our” On the contrary, Vietnamese have collective thinking way, which make people aware of the strength of group, of community and pay attention not to each individual elements consisted but to the whole reciprocal relations between them Thus Vietnamese politicians put aside their individual elements and emphasize the collective elements That is why the speaker‟s hidden power on the Vietnamese hearers is not much, and here it is the whole nation‟s hidden power on the hearers of other nations Besides, affected by Hồ Chí Minh‟s style: “writing and speaking is to make others understand precisely” (Ho, C.M., 2002), Vietnamese political speeches are to make every class of citizens perceive the speakers‟ ideas or ideologies As a result, the speaker‟s political stances are often clear, logic and precise
In conclusion, looking at the comparative and contrastive analysis, we find out the differences seem to outweigh the similarities, particularly on cultural properties
Recapitulation
Let us now briefly summarize the main issues addressed in this thesis We have begun by giving an overlook on SFG and Grammatical Metaphor Then great effort has been put on describing nominalization- the most powerful resource for creating grammatical metaphor and can be understood simply as the drift towards “thinginess”-in English and Vietnamese theoretically In these two languages, nominalization occurs at the word and clause level
Of course, there are both common and different properties because they belong to the universal human language and two distinct language families: Indian-European and Asian- Australian Some characteristics of the language of politics are also presented to work out how the nominalization serves the speakers‟ ideologies and contributes to the success of the discourse Importantly, this paper provides a close analysis on nominalization in two specific discourses- one in English, the other in Vietnamese- regarding three metafunctions namely, ideational, interpersonal and textual The functions of nominalization in the discourses which is fully exploited can be summed up under the labels: deletion, reification, objectification, abstraction, mystification, exertion of power It is also a device of cohesion and helps the discourses go further step by step when appearing in Theme or Rheme position or being repeated Nominalization in these political discourses severs as an effective tool of expressing the speakers‟ ideologies Two distinct ideologies are presented by the use of the same a strategy namely, nominalization These different ideologies are controlled by the differences on cultural properties In the English speech, nominalizations are used to convey one message: despite the attacks, American economic, military, moral superiority remains unchallenged, remains powerful and the American government has been determined to punish terrorism, expanding their power A different picture is painted in the Vietnamese speech President Nguyen Minh Triet emphasizes: Ha Noi has turned
1000 years old, with many ups and downs in its history, the capital has obtained great achievements in all fields including politics, economy, culture and society, thus contributing to the development of the country; Ha Noi represents long-standing cultural essence and civilized traditions of the country, is a worthy heart and capital of the country, the pride of the nation; Ha Noi in particular and Vietnam in general illuminates with fine traditional qualities: civilization, heroism, peace and friendship.
Implications
To the teachers: A conclusion drawn from this study is that nominalization allows denseness of information and of meaning In many cases, you may find that it is difficult to decide a congruent reading which adequately reflects the meaning encoded in the metaphorical forms It is also difficult to decide at what point you are crossing from unpacking the meanings that are to importing the meanings that were not there before
However, nominalization is of great power Therefore, the concept of nominalization should be treated with caution by the teachers because they can help their students to comprehend English scientific discourse, especially political one Besides, a good knowledge of nominalization proves effective in helping students improving their arguments in writing tasks It is a means of developing arguments step by step and creating cohesion in written texts Thus it should be take into consideration in developing writing material for students Additionally, making a comparison between nominalization in English and Vietnamese, the teachers should work out the similarities and the differences for their students to have a better understanding about the languages
To the translators: The analysis of nominalization in political discourse proves that it is an effective tool of creating objectification, abstraction, mystification, exertion of power
Nevertheless, the translators should bear in mind that nominalization is used more frequently in English than in Vietnamese While in English post-modifier can be a nominalization, in Vietnamese it can be a verb Influenced by more frequent appearance of English nominalization, if the translators translate verbs in Vietnamese into nominalizations in English, they will create different meanings to the translated discourse compared to the original Vietnamese one Therefore, a good knowledge of the functions of nominalization can help the translators understand the deep structure of discourse or the so-called implicatory mechanism, then they can pick out the strokes of meaning needed translating.
Limitation and Suggestions for Further Studies
This study has been an attempt at describing the nature of grammatical metaphor of nominalization in general, then identifying its realization and its functions in two specific political discourses On the small scale of our minor thesis, it has been limited to instances of nominalization in two political speeches: one in English, the other in Vietnamese
Besides, among two types of grammatical metaphor- ideational and interpersonal, much of our effort has been focused on the analysis of nominalization- a sub-type of ideational grammatical metaphor Therefore, further studies, if possible, should cover a wider range of grammatical metaphor by paying attention to interpersonal metaphor to have an overall picture of speakers‟ ideologies and presuppositional and implicatory mechanism in political discourse Moreover, as the focus of this study is on nominalization in political discourse in English and in Vietnamese, further research of nominalization in other genres in the two languages such as journalism or legal would be of great value
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1.http://articles.cnn.com/2001-09-20/us/gen.bush.transcript-1-joint-session-national- anthem
2 http://tuoitre.vn./Chinh-tri-xa-hoi
APPENDIX A: Nominalization in President Bush’s Speech
List Line Semantic Type Semantic Roles Examples
1 3 process thing qualifier the state of the union
8 the state of our union
15 the state of the union
39 goal complement rheme his unity
2 5 process entity goal complement rheme terrorists
51 modifier a collection of loosely affiliated terrorist organizations
57 actor subject theme the terrorist
66 existent complement rheme thousands of these terrorist
89 goal complement rheme every terrorist
95 goal complement rheme the terrorists
100 identified subject theme the terrorist
102 qualifier a radical network of terrorists
115 actor subject theme these terrorist
141 attribute adjunct rheme the terrorists
216 qualifier the plan of terrorists
145 concept qualifier measures against terrorism
3 8 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme the endurance of rescuers
4 242 process thing range complement rheme rescue
5 9 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme exhaustion
6 10 process thing range complement rheme the unfurling of the flags
7 10 process thing range complement rheme the lighting of candles
8 10 process thing range complement rheme the giving of blood
9 11 process thing range complement rheme the saying of prayers
10 12 process thing qualifier the decency of a loving
11 12 process epithet modifier giving people who…
12 16 quality thing goal complement rheme freedom
165 attribute complement rheme America‟s freedom
13 17 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme resolution
14 19 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme its leadership
25 circumstance adjunct rheme your leadership
71 carrier subject theme the leadership of Al Qaeda
63 entity goal subject theme its leader
15 22 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme delivering
16 23 process thing goal complement rheme the needs of our military
17 26 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme its outpouring of (support)
19 31 process thing range complement rheme the prayers of sympathy…
160 attribute complement rheme our prayers
201 act goal complement rheme praying
20 30 process act range complement rheme gathering
21 32 quality thing qualifier moments of silence
22 32 process thing qualifier days of mourning
23 60 clause locution(2) verbiage complement rheme to kill Christians and Jews
24 41 clause act circumstance adjunct rheme coming
25 42 process thing goal complement rheme act of (war)
26 42, 45 process thing qualifier war; the casualties of war
104 actor subject theme our war on terror
124 goal complement rheme this war
129 identified subject theme this war
130 identifier complement rheme the air war
27 46 process thing phenomenon complement rheme surprise attacks
155 circumstance adjunct rheme any attacks
173 carrier subject theme an attack
174 attribute complement rheme an attack
28 51 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme a collection of…
29 52 process entity identifier complement rheme some of the murderers…
30 53 clause act(2) circumstance adjunct rheme bombing
31 55 N+ R.cl fact range complement rheme what the Mafia is to crime
32 55 clause act attribute complement rheme making money
33 56 clause act attribute complement rheme remarking the world
34 56 clause act attribute complement rheme imposing its radical beliefs
35 57 attribute concept qualifier a fringe form of Islamic extremism
36 58 process thing goal complement rheme a fringe movement that…
37 59 process thing goal complement rheme the peaceful teachings of Islam
98 carrier subject theme its teachings
38 61 process thing goal complement rheme no distinctions
39 70 process thing goal complement rheme destruction
127 circumstance adjunct rheme the destruction
40 71 process thing attribute complement rheme great influence
126 identifier complement rheme every financial influence
41 75 clause act goal complement rheme to attend school
42 75 clause act circumstance adjunct rheme owning a television
43 81 clause act circumstance adjunct rheme sponsoring
44 81 clause act circumstance adjunct rheme sheltering
45 81 clause act circumstance adjunct rheme supplying
46 82 clause act circumstance adjunct theme aiding
47 82 clause act circumstance adjunct theme abetting
48 83 process epithet modifier the following (demands)
49 83 process thing goal complement rheme demands
93 carrier subject theme these demands
50 88 process classifier modifier every terrorist training camp
51 91 process thing goal complement rheme full access
52 93 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme negotiation
53 93 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme discussion
54 96 clause act phenomenon complement rheme to speak
55 100 process entity attribute complement rheme traitors
56 100 clause act circumstance adjunct trying
57 108 N+ R.cl fact phenomenon complement rheme what they see right here in this chamber
58 110 clause act N.complement our freedom to vote
61 112 clause act phenomenon complement rheme to overthrow
62 112 process epithet modifier existing governments
63 113 clause act(2) phenomenon complement rheme to drive
64 116 clause fact phenomenon complement rheme that America grows fearful,…
65 120 process act circumstance adjunct theme sacrificing
66 121 process act circumstance adjunct theme abandoning
67 149 process thing goal complement rheme the creation of…
68 162 clause locution verbiage complement rheme to alert
70 122 clause fact circumstance adjunct rheme where it ends in history’s unmarked grave of discarded lies
71 125 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme our command
72 126 quality thing qualifier every tool of intelligence
73 126 process thing qualifier every instrument of law enforcement
213 goal complement rheme law enforcement
74 127 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme the defeat
75 130 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme a decisive liberation of territory
76 130 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme a swift conclusion
77 133 process thing actor subject theme our response
78 133,135 process thing goal complement rheme isolated strikes; dramatic strikes
79 133 process thing goal complement rheme instant retaliation
80 136 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme success
81 137 clause act circumstance adjunct rheme funding
82 223 quality thing circumstance adjunct theme the possibilities
83 144 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme notice
84 147 attribute thing attribute complement rheme responsibilities
185 thing circumstance adjunct rheme our first responsibility
85 147 quality thing goal complement rheme homeland security
150 qualifier the Office of Homeland Security
152 goal complement rheme American security
194 goal complement rhreme tighter security
86 157 clause act attribute complement rheme to stop it
87 157 clause act attribute complement rheme eliminate it
88 157 clause act attribute complement rheme destroy it
89 157 clause fact circumstance adjunct rheme where it grows
90 159 process entity circumstance adjunct rheme the reservists…
91 159 process thing phenomenon complement rheme our thanks
92 164 process thing attribute complement rheme America‟s fight
166 identifier complement rheme the world‟s fight
166 attribute complement rheme civilization‟s fight
166 identifier complement rheme the fight of all
185 circumstance adjunct rheme a fight for…
93 164 clause fact idetifier subject theme what is at stake
94 167 process thing phenomenon complement rheme progress
95 167 quality concept phenomenon complement rheme pluralism
96 167 process thing phenomenon complement rheme tolerance
97 168 process thing phenomenon complement rheme the help of …
98 168 clause locution verbiage complement rheme to join us
99 221 process thing qualifier a symbol of America‟s resolve
239 actor subject theme our resolve
100 169 process thing modifier banking systems
101 175 clause idea phenomenon complement rheme that if this terror goes unpunished,…
102 177 quality thing range complement rheme the stability of…
103 181 clause fact phenomenon complement rheme many citizens have fears tonight
104 182 process epithet modifier a continuing threat
105 183 clause locution verbiage complement rheme to uphold the values of America
106 183 clause locution verbiage complement rheme (to) remember…
107 183 N+ R.cl fact range complement rheme why so many have come
108 186 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme unfair treatment
109 188 clause locution verbiage complement rheme to continue to support the victims of …
110 188 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme your contributions
111 192 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme this investigation
112 193 process thing range complement rheme your cooperation
113 193, 194 quality thing (2) verbiage complement rheme your patience
114 193 clause locution verbiage complement rheme to give it
115 193 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme the delays
116 194 quality thing circumstance adjunct rheme inconveniences
117 195 clause fact circumstance adjunct rheme what will be a long (struggle)
118 225 clause fact phenomenon complement rheme there are struggles ahead and…
119 196 process thing verbiage complement rheme your continued participation
120 196 process thing verbiage complement rheme confidence
121 197 process thing qualifier a symbol of American prosperity
122 198 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme the hard work
123 211 clause act circumstance adjunct rheme flying with…
124 204,207 N+ R.cl fact (2) circumstance adjunct rheme what you have done
125 205,207 N+ R.cl fact (2) circumstance adjunct rheme what you will do
126 208 process thing goal complement rheme new and sudden national challenges
127 209 quality thing goal complement rheme air safety
128 210 process act goal complement rheme hijacking
129 212 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme assistance
130 215 clause act N.complement to know the plans of terrorists
131 216 clause act N.complement to find them
132 221 process thing actor subject theme my administration
133 222 clause act range complement rheme that we will rebuild New York City
134 223 process thing circumstance adjunct theme hopes
232 patient subject theme the great hope of every time
236 identified complement rheme my hope
135 224 clause act carrier subject theme to wonder if America’s future is one of fear
136 229 process thing goal subject theme great harm
137 231 process thing patient subject theme the advance of human freedom
138 231 process thing patient subject theme great achievement of our time
139 233 quality thing modifier the dark threat of violence
140 236 clause fact identifier subject theme that in the months and years ahead life will return almost to normal
141 240 clause fact range complement rheme to whom it happened
142 239 clause fact range complement rheme what happened that day
143 239 clause fact range complement rheme where we were
144 241 clause fact range complement rheme what we were doing
145 245 clause act range complement rheme to save others
146 247 process thing identifier complement rheme my reminder of lives
147 248 process thing phenomenon complement rheme the wound
148 251 process thing qualifier the course of this conflict
149 254 attribute thing phenomenon complement rheme the rightness of our cause
150 180 clause locution verbiage complement rheme to live your lives
151 180 clause locution verbiage complement rheme (to) hug your children
152 181 clause locution verbiage complement rheme to be calm
APPENDIX B: Nominalization in President Nguyen Minh Triet’s Speech
List Line Semantic Type Semantic Roles Examples
1 7 process thing goal complement rheme lời chào mừng nồng nhiệt
2 8 process thing goal complement rheme lời chúc tốt đẹp nhất
3 9 quality thing goal complement rheme tình cảm ấm áp của bạn bè bốn phương
30 phenomenon complement rheme tình cảm sâu nặng của mỗi chúng ta
4 10 process fact actor subject theme sự hiện diện của qúy vị
5 11 quality thing phenomenon complement rheme tình hữu nghị qúy báu của qúy vị
33,74 identifier (2) complement rheme (phẩm chất): hữu nghị
6 12 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme cuộc sống hòa bình của nhân loại
7 13 quality thing circumstance adjunct rheme sự phồn vinh của mỗi dân tộc
59 quality thing circumstance adjunct rheme hạnh phúc của mỗi người goal complement rheme hạnh phúc goal complement rheme hạnh phúc
9 17 process thing circumstance adjunct theme tầm nhìn chiến lược
10 20 quality thing goal complement rheme thăng trầm
11 21 process fact attribute complement rheme tư thế vững vàng
12 26 process thing attribute complement rheme một lòng sắt son yêu nước
13 27 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme một tình yêu thương vững bền và sâu sắc
14 28 process thing phenomenon complement rheme những đóng góp của cả nước với
29 phenomenon complement rheme những đóng góp của Thủ đô với cả nước
15 31 quality thing goal complement rheme những giá trị truyền thống của toàn dân tộc
16 32,73 quality thing identifier (2) complement rheme (phẩm chất): anh hùng
58 quality thing carrier subject theme anh hùng trong chiến đấu
58 carrier subject theme anh hùng trong lao động
58 carrier subject theme anh hùng
59 carrier subject theme anh hùng
63 quality thing identifier (2) complement rheme (phẩm chất): hòa bình phenomenon complement rheme hòa bình circumstance adjunct rheme hòa bình
18 40 quality thing goal complement rheme tinh thần độc lập, tự chủ
19 64 quality thing goal complement rheme tinh thần nhân đạo và hòa hiếu của dân tộc
20 66 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme tinh thần yêu chuộng hòa bình của người Thăng Long-Hà Nội-Việt Nam
21 41 quality thing circumstance adjunct rheme sức mạnh (của dân tộc Việt Nam)
22 41 quality thing circumstance adjunct rheme sự thông minh (của dân tộc Việt
23 41 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme sáng tạo (của dân tộc Việt Nam)
24 45 process thing phenomenon complement rheme lòng biết ơn vô hạn
25 46 process thing attribute complement rheme công khai sáng
26 50 process thing attribute complement rheme công xây dựng và bảo vệ Thủ đô
27 47 process entity range complement rheme nhà yêu nước
28 55 quality thing goal complement rheme tuổi trẻ
29 55 process thing goal complement rheme tình yêu
30 58 quality thing circumstance adjunct rheme độc lập (của Tổ quốc)
31 29 clause fact identifier complement rheme tinh thần “cả nước vì Thủ đô, Thủ đô vì cả nước”
32 58 quality thing circumstance adjunct rheme tự do (của Tổ quốc)
33 64 quality thing phenomenon complement rheme chủ nghĩa nhân văn
34 66 process fact circumstance adjunct rheme đại thắng
35 68 process thing verbiage complement rheme sự thông cảm,ủng hộ và giúp đỡ to lớn của nhân dân tiến bộ toàn thế giới
36 70 process thing goal complement rheme sức xây dựng cộng đồng khu vực và quốc tế…
37 75 process thing identifier complement rheme phong cách ứng xử của con người
38 77 process fact circumstance adjunct rheme một tầm cao
39 82 process fact circumstance adjunct rheme một tư thế mới
40 83 process fact circumstance adjunct rheme diện mạo mới
41 83 process fact circumstance adjunct rheme sức sống mới
42 86 quality thing attribute complement rheme nhiều khó khăn
43 86 process thing attribute complement rheme thách thức
44 88 process thing phenomenon complement rheme đoàn kết một lòng
45 64 process thing circumstance adjunct rheme khát vọng hòa bình
(Thursday, September 20 , 2001) (Retrieved from http://articles.cnn.com/2001-09- 20/us/gen.bush.transcript-1-joint-session-national-anthem, Accessed 18 June 2011)
BUSH: Mr Speaker, Mr President Pro Tempore, members of Congress, and fellow
Americans, in the normal course of events, presidents come to this chamber to report on the state of the union Tonight, no such report is needed; it has already been delivered by the American people
We have seen it in the courage of passengers who rushed terrorists to save others on the ground Passengers like an exceptional man named Todd Beamer And would you please help me welcome his wife Lisa Beamer here tonight?
We have seen the state of our union in the endurance of rescuers working past exhaustion
We've seen the unfurling of flags, the lighting of candles, the giving of blood, the saying of prayers in English, Hebrew and Arabic
We have seen the decency of a loving and giving people who have made the grief of strangers their own
My fellow citizens, for the last nine days, the entire world has seen for itself the state of union, and it is strong
Tonight, we are a country awakened to danger and called to defend freedom Our grief has turned to anger and anger to resolution Whether we bring our enemies to justice or bring justice to our enemies, justice will be done
I thank the Congress for its leadership at such an important time
All of America was touched on the evening of the tragedy to see Republicans and Democrats joined together on the steps of this Capitol singing ``God Bless America.'' And you did more than sing You acted, by delivering $40 billion to rebuild our communities and meet the needs of our military Speaker Hastert, Minority Leader Gephardt, Majority Leader Daschle and Senator Lott, I thank you for your friendship, for your leadership and for your service to our country
And on behalf of the American people, I thank the world for its outpouring of support
America will never forget the sounds of our national anthem playing at Buckingham Palace, on the streets of Paris and at Berlin's Brandenburg Gate
We will not forget South Korean children gathering to pray outside our embassy in
We will not forget moments of silence and days of mourning in Australia and Africa and Latin America
Nor will we forget the citizens of 80 other nations who died with our own Dozens of Pakistanis, more than 130 Israelis, more than 250 citizens of India, men and women from El Salvador, Iran, Mexico and Japan, and hundreds of British citizens
America has no truer friend than Great Britain
Once again, we are joined together in a great cause
I'm so honored the British prime minister had crossed an ocean to show his unity with America
Thank you for coming, friend
On September the 11th, enemies of freedom committed an act of war against our country Americans have known wars, but for the past 136 years they have been wars on foreign soil, except for one Sunday in 1941 Americans have known the casualties of war, but not at the center of a great city on a peaceful morning
Americans have known surprise attacks, but never before on thousands of civilians
All of this was brought upon us in a single day, and night fell on a different world, a world where freedom itself is under attack
Americans have many questions tonight Americans are asking, ``Who attacked our country?''
The evidence we have gathered all points to a collection of loosely affiliated terrorist organizations known as al Qaeda They are some of the murderers indicted for bombing American embassies in Tanzania and Kenya and responsible for bombing the USS Cole
Al Qaeda is to terror what the Mafia is to crime But its goal is not making money, its goal is remaking the world and imposing its radical beliefs on people everywhere
The terrorists practice a fringe form of Islamic extremism that has been rejected by Muslim scholars and the vast majority of Muslim clerics; a fringe movement that perverts the peaceful teachings of Islam
The terrorists' directive commands them to kill Christians and Jews, to kill all Americans and make no distinctions among military and civilians, including women and children
This group and its leader, a person named Osama bin Laden, are linked to many
There are thousands of these terrorists in more than 60 countries
They are recruited from their own nations and neighborhoods and brought to camps in places like Afghanistan where they are trained in the tactics of terror They are sent back to their homes or sent to hide in countries around the world to plot evil and destruction
The leadership of Al Qaeda has great influence in Afghanistan and supports the Taliban regime in controlling most of that country In Afghanistan we see Al Qaeda's vision for the world Afghanistan's people have been brutalized, many are starving and many have fled
Women are not allowed to attend school You can be jailed for owning a television
Religion can be practiced only as their leaders dictate A man can be jailed in Afghanistan if his beard is not long enough
The United States respects the people of Afghanistan after all, we are currently its largest source of humanitarian aid but we condemn the Taliban regime
It is not only repressing its own people, it is threatening people everywhere by sponsoring and sheltering and supplying terrorists
By aiding and abetting murder, the Taliban regime is committing murder And tonight the United States of America makes the following demands on the Taliban
Deliver to United States authorities all of the leaders of Al Quaeda who hide in your land
Release all foreign nationals, including American citizens you have unjustly imprisoned Protect foreign journalists, diplomats and aid workers in your country
Close immediately and permanently every terrorist training camp in Afghanistan
And hand over every terrorist and every person and their support structure to appropriate authorities
Give the United States full access to terrorist training camps, so we can make sure they are no longer operating
These demands are not open to negotiation or discussion
The Taliban must act and act immediately
They will hand over the terrorists or they will share in their fate
I also want to speak tonight directly to Muslims throughout the world We respect
129 in countries that America counts as friends Its teachings are good and peaceful, and those who commit evil in the name of Allah blaspheme the name of Allah
The terrorists are traitors to their own faith, trying, in effect, to hijack Islam itself
The enemy of America is not our many Muslim friends It is not our many Arab friends Our enemy is a radical network of terrorists and every government that supports them
Our war on terror begins with Al Qaeda, but it does not end there
It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated
