360 Buddhist Ethics (bh›vav›din, dngos por smra ba) Theirs is a philosophy expounded mainly by adherents of the Individual Way and no doubt characterized the tenets of the original schools of Buddhism in India Traditionalists are so called because their assertions are based mainly on the scriptures that record the word of the Buddha Though Traditionalists are Realists, the Traditionalist followers of reason differentiate themselves from Analysts by negating the substantial status of conceptually imputed phenomena and by propounding a finer concept of conventional and ultimate truth For them, a phenomenon able to produce an effect (arthakriya, don byed nus pa) is ultimate truth, and one not able to so is a conventional truth Traditionalists were followers of the Individual Way, but their tenets may have been the spark that originated the finer thought of the Universal Way Idealists, whose system was pioneered by Asanga, are so called because they assert that all phenomena are of the nature of the mind that perceives them For this reason, they are also called “Proponents of the Aspect of Consciousness” (vijñ›nav›din, rnam rig smra ba) The lack of substantial duality between observer and observed is for them the subtle selflessness of phenomena, the ultimate truth This view provided the support for the experientialist approach to meditation; for this reason, they are also called “Experientialists” (yog›c›rin, rnal ’byor spyod pa) This approach, however, led them to overemphasize perception or mind and to attribute to the mind a true or ultimate status A branch of the Idealists, which follows the scriptures, also subscribes to the belief in a fundamental consciousness (›layavijñ›na, kun gzhi rnam shes) as the storehouse of cumulative imprints of actions and as the person itself Idealists are followers of the Universal Way, and their tenets, along with those of the Centrists, are said to have formed the conceptual frame of reference for the tantric systems Centrists, whose system was pioneered by Nagarjuna, are so called because they follow the “center” (madhya, dbu) or “middle way” which does not fall into the two extremes of negating conventional reality and asserting the true existence of phenomena They advocate the complementarity of the two truths, the conventional as the dependent arising of phenomena and the ultimate as the emptiness of true status of everything that exists Centrists are subdivided into “Dogmaticists” (sv›tantrika, rang rgyud pa) and “Consequentialists” (prasaºgika, thal ’gyur pa), the former advocated by Bhavaviveka and the latter by Chandrakirti, Shantideva, etc Their main difference lies in their analyses of whether or not a phenomenon has an “essence.” The former asserts that it does, but does not say what it is exactly The latter asserts that when a phenomenon is analyzed, nothing is found that can be said to constitute the phenomena itself Consequentialists assert that everything is just a name, a mere imputation of the mind, and nothing ever has any true existence, even conventionally The tenets of Centrists represent the prominent part of the Universal Way philosophy, as well as the view based on which tantric practice is performed (From the verbal teachings of Geshé Rabten For a comprehensive discussion of these philosophies, see Hopkins’s Meditation on Emptiness [London: Wisdom, 1983], henceforth cited as ME.) A distinction exists between the view of Centrist proponents of intrinsic emp- Notes to Chapter II 361 tiness (rang stong pa) and that of Centrist proponents of extrinsic emptiness (gzhan stong pa) This distinction, found only within the Tibetan traditions, is one that Kongtrul expressly adheres to in his writings The former view asserts that all things are empty of their own essence (rang stong); such emptiness, a mere negation (med dgag), is the ultimate truth The latter asserts that the ultimate nature is naturally perfect, devoid of any stain, and therefore not empty of its own nature Phenomena are considered deceptions that manifest adventitiously as the fabrication of duality They not exist in reality; therefore, the relative is empty of its nature Phenomena are extraneous to ultimate reality, and therefore the ultimate is empty of extraneous natures (gzhan stong) The masters of the Jonangpa school were the main apologists of the second view See Dharmashri’s Commentary on the Three Vows (sDom ’grel/ sDom pa gsum rnam par nges pa’i ’grel pa legs bshad ngo mtshar dpag bsam gyi snye ma) (Chorten Monastery edition, Deorali, Gangtok, Sikkim, published by Dodrup Chen Rinpoché) f 185a5 14 Perceptible form (rnam par rig byed kyi gzugs) refers to form that arises as the object of sense perception Imperceptible form (rnam par rig byed ma yin pa’i gzugs) refers to form for the mental consciousness only, not perceived by others 15 Acquisition (pr›pti, thob pa): The Sarvastivadin view on the element ensuring the link between an action and its results On this point, Analysts assert that the person who assumes vows is like an elephant, and the vows, the elephant’s load The load is tied to the elephant by the rope of the anomalous factor (viprayuktasa˙sk›ra, ldan ’du byed) of “acquisition.” When a cause for losing the vows is present, the rope of acquisition is cut, and the load of the vows falls to the ground; in other words, the person becomes vowless (Tsonapa’s SIRD, f 138b2) 16 See section below entitled “Vows for Life,” which explains the ten essential elements for the monk’s ordination (such as the ordaining preceptor and so forth) 17 Pema Karpo adds that “perceptible” refers also to physical and verbal acts done during the ceremony of ordination such as prostrations and reciting the refuge formula (TV, vol Nga, f 31a) 18 Chandrakirti (Candrakırti, Zla ba grags pa): a saint and scholar of the sixth century Born in south India, he became an elucidator of Nagarjuna’s thought and an eminent teacher of the Centrist viewpoint and the Universal Way He is renowned for his Guide to the Middle Way (Madhyamak›vatar›bh›˝ya; dBu ma la ’jug pa) (Toh 3682); Lucid Exposition: A Commentary on [Nagarjuna’s Fundamental Text on] Wisdom (MỊlamadhyamakav¸ttiprasannapad›; dBu ma rtsa ba’i ’grel pa tshig gsal) (Toh 3860); and Luminous Lamp (Pradıpodyotana-n›ma-˛ık›; sGron ma gsal bar byed pa) (Toh 1785), a commentary on the Five Stages, a tantric work by Nagarjuna 19 In Analysis of the Five Aggregates (Pañcaskandhaprakara˚a; Phung po lnga’i rab tu byed pa) (Toh 3866), f 242b3-4, Chandrakirti states: “Imperceptible form belongs to the mental sense-field, cannot be shown, is unobstructed, and is comprehended by mental consciousness alone Examples of imperceptible form are the [personal liberation] vows, the opposite of the vows, and that which has the nature of a virtuous or unvirtuous continuity pertaining to a class in between [i.e., neither vows nor the opposite of vows].” 362 Buddhist Ethics 20 Drigungpa (’Bri gung pa), a reference to Drigung Kyopa (’Bri gung skyob pa) (1143-1219), the foremost disciple of Pakmodrupa and founder of the Drigung Kagyu school 21 Taktsang (sTag tshang lo tsa ba Shes rab rin chen), a scholar and translator of the Sakya school, born the year Tsongkapa composed his Tantric Stages (sNgags rim chen mo) (1405) He became a vehement critic of Tsongkapa 22 Pema Karpo says that mok˝a refers to liberation, which is the transcendence of suffering, and pr›ti (individual) to the causes that lead to the transcendence of suffering, such as the vows of a monk, etc (TV, vol Nga, f 4b2) Tsonapa discusses three etymological intepretations for pr›timok˝a: (1) as “vows of individual liberation,” where pr›ti is individual and mok˝a, liberation They are called vows of individual liberation because they lead to liberation only the individual person who safeguards such ethics, not anyone else who is not following that system of ethics; (2) as “vows of initial liberation,” where pr›ti is initial and mok˝a, liberation They are called vows of initial liberation because in the first moment these vows are assumed, one is liberated from being a vowless person; (3) as “vows as means to attain liberation,” where pr›ti is means in the sense of being a “condition” for liberation (mok˝a) Pr›timok˝a [translated here as “personal liberation” according to the usual Tibetan rendering of the term] has undergone two distinct but not unrelated phases of evolution of meaning Originally, the term simply indicated a confession of faith almost equivalent to dharma or doctrine The principles indicated in the advice “Do not any evil deeds, practice all kinds of virtue, and control your mind: this is the Buddha’s doctrine” formed the original pr›timok˝a or “bond” for the emergent monastic community, which initially was just another sect of religious wanderers Later, with the need for and the gradual emergence of a monastic code of discipline, the term referred to a basic list of rules (described in the Personal Liberation Discourse) The list was recited at the bimonthly assembly that began as an occasion to preach the doctrine and only later became more of a confession ceremony This likely occurred after the Buddha’s demise around the time of the first Buddhist council These two concepts of pr›timok˝a at different phases of its evolution are closely linked since both represent principally a bond for the community In the beginning, the bond reflected the essence of the doctrine; in the second phase, the bond was expressed more in rules, and the scope of the concept expanded to include a ritualized confession We can therefore conclude that this term originally meant “bond that leads to freedom” (SIRD, vol sTod cha, f 12a3-6) 23 Exalted ones (›rya, ’phags pa): those who have perceived the truth and are thus exalted compared to other worldly beings This includes individuals on levels of realization from the path of seeing to final enlightenment 24 For a discussion of the latter two types of ethical conduct, see Gendun Drubpa’s Commentary on [Vasubandhu’s] Treasury of Phenomenology (mDzod kyi thar lam gsal byed) (Sarnath, Varanasi: Pleasure of Elegant Sayings Printing Press, 1973), pp 215-220 Notes to Chapter II 363 25 Actual meditative absorptions (bsam gtan dngos bzhi) refers to the four meditative concentrations of the form realm and the four absorptions of the formless realm For a discussion of this subject, see Lati Rinpochay’s Meditative States in Tibetan Buddhism (London: Wisdom Publications, 1983) 26 Pema Karpo provides an etymological definition for the Tibetan term gelong (dge slong) (monk), which translates the Sanskrit bhik˝u, as a virtuous person who “begs” (slong) for alms and seeks the “virtue” (dge) of perfect peace (TV, vol Nga, f 28a3-5) 27 Tsonapa defines the Sanskrit term Ÿr›ma˚era as “the person whose eyes shed tears.” Just as the person who sheds tears can see things close by but not in the distance, the novice is allowed to hear the discipline intended for him (close by) but not the discipline and ceremonies of the monks (distant) In the common language, the novice is known as cilu (servant) because he cannot handle the responsibilities of being a teacher (SIRD, f 39b1-3) 28 The Tibetan term dge bsnyen which translates the Sanskrit up›saka is etymologically explained as “being close to” (up›, bsnyen) “virtue” (saka, dge ba) 29 Gendun Drubpa, the First Dalai Lama, states that the purificatory fast vows are not differentiated in terms of male and female holders of these vows because they last just one day (Commentary on Vasubandhu’s Treasury of Phenomenology, p 215) See also Tsonapa’s SIRD, f 11b2 30 See Gendun Drubpa’s Commentary on Vasubandhu’s Treasury of Phenomenology, p 215 31 A female novice must receive the postulant nun’s vows and observe them for two years before she can receive full ordination as a nun Atisha states that eight types of personal liberation vows are spoken of in the scriptures on discipline taught by the Buddha himself, as well as in those composed by saints, such as Entering Pristine Awareness (Ye shes la ’jug pa) and the Great Detailed Exposition (Bye brag tu bshad mdzod chen mo) However, the noble Asanga, in the chapter on ethics in his Stages of Yogic Practice (YogacaryabhÒmi, rNal ’byor spyod pa’i sa), states that there are only seven types, and this cannot be doubted The practitioner of the purificatory fast is excluded from the eight since a one-day observance of vows is not a true ascetic practice and does not involve restraint from desires for any great length of time (Commentary on the Lamp for the Path [Bodhim›rgapradıpapañjik›; Byang chub lam gyi sgron ma’i dka’ ’grel] [Toh 3948], ff 259b3-260a3.) 32 These cases are recorded in Vishakadeva’s Garland of Flowers (Me tog phreng rgyud, Toh 4123) and Vishesamitra’s Summary of Discipline (’Dul ba bsdus pa, Toh 4105), and in the commentaries on the phenomenology (abhidharma) class of teachings 33 The excellent group of five (lnga sde bzang po): the first five disciples of the Buddha: Ajnata Kaundinya, Vashpa, Ashvajit, Mahanama, and Bhadrika 34 Shariputra and Maudgalyayana were the Buddha’s two most outstanding 364 Buddhist Ethics disciples Shariputra excelled in wisdom, and Maudgalyayana, in miraculous powers Both were teachers in their own right who used to tutor students sent to them by the Buddha According to Tsonapa, the Buddha conferred the status of monk by calling “Come hither, monks!” to those aspirants who were capable of attaining the path of seeing in the same life, had already attained it, or were in their last existence before becoming saints (SIRD, f 29b6-7) 35 Mahakashyapa (Mah›k›Ÿyapa, ’Od srung chen po): a chief disciple of the Buddha, who became the first patriarch after the teacher passed away To Mahakashyapa is attributed the formulation of the phenomenology (abhidharma) section of the Buddhist canon in its archaic form 36 Eight severe precepts (lci ba’i chos brgyad): To receive ordination from monks; to await announcement of the proper date for the fortnightly confession from monks; to participate in the rainy season retreat near a place where monks are also in retreat; to attend the ceremony of lifting of restrictions (imposed during the rainy season retreat) in an assembly of both monks and nuns; to serve respectfully both monks and nuns if one has transgressed any of these eight precepts; not to reveal the corrupted morals of monks; not to reproach a monk; to behave respectfully (prostrating and so forth) toward the community of monks, including prostrating before a newly ordained monk (Gunaprabha’s One Hundred Formal Procedures [henceforth cited as HFP] [EkottarakarmaŸataka, Las brgya rtsa gcig pa] [Toh 4118], f 139a2.) 37 Mahaprajapati (Mah›praj›patı, sKye dgu’i bdag mo): the sister of the Buddha’s mother, who raised him after his mother died Upon her insistence and with the intercession of Ananda, Buddha’s cousin, the Buddha consented to having nuns enter the order 38 Roerich reconstructs the Sanskrit as Dharmadatta: George N Roerich, trans., The Blue Annals (Calcutta, 1949; 2nd ed Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1976), p 33 39 Four-part formal procedure including proposal (gsol ba dang bzhi’i las): one request (gsol ba) and three repetitions of the appropriate formula (brjod pa) 40 Impediment of intentional action (las kyi sgrib pa): an impediment derived from having committed one of the five actions of immediate retribution (killing one’s father, etc.) Impediment of fruition (rnam smin gyi sgrib pa): being born as a hell being, hungry ghost, or animal Emotional impediment (nyon mongs pa’i sgrib pa): having strong negative emotions that impede the attainment of liberation in the present lifetime 41 Three spiritual maturities (smin pa gsum): of intelligence (shes rab), which refers to the intelligence to discern the meaning of the four truths or emptiness; of continuum of mind (rgyud), which means having a pure stream of mind with few obscurations; and of faculties (dbang po), which means being a person of highest capabilities ... opposite of the vows, and that which has the nature of a virtuous or unvirtuous continuity pertaining to a class in between [i.e., neither vows nor the opposite of vows].” 362 Buddhist Ethics 20... “acquisition.” When a cause for losing the vows is present, the rope of acquisition is cut, and the load of the vows falls to the ground; in other words, the person becomes vowless (Tsonapa’s SIRD, f 138b2)... that the person who assumes vows is like an elephant, and the vows, the elephant’s load The load is tied to the elephant by the rope of the anomalous factor (viprayuktasa˙sk›ra, ldan ’du byed) of