90 Buddhist Ethics (5) By taking refuge; for example, at the moment the sixty followers of Bhadrasena accepted the triple refuge, they became monks (6) By accepting the eight severe precepts36; for example, at the moment when Mahaprajapati37 and others (five hundred women of the Shakya clan) promised to maintain the eight precepts difficult to observe, they became nuns (7) By pleasing the Buddha with a [correct] answer; for example, at the moment the Buddha rejoiced after Sudatta answered a particular question, Sudatta became a monk (8) By messenger; for example, at the moment Dharmadinna,38 whose parents prevented her [from becoming a nun], received the ordained community’s message of approval brought by the messenger, the nun Utpala, she became a nun (9) By an assembly of [at least] ten masters of the discipline in the central region; or (10) By an assembly of [at least] five masters of the discipline in a remote region, through a four-part formal procedure including proposal39 that conferred instantaneously the status of monk [This ordination] was conferred by an exalted preceptor upon aspirants of pure mind, that is, disciples whose three impediments (of intentional actions, emotions, and fruition40) were minimal and whose intelligence, continuum, and faculties were ripened.41 Once the present-day procedure [of ordination] was introduced, the former method was discontinued.42 The present method, a four-part procedure, has been [the only one] in use from the time of the passing of the Buddha and his circle [of close disciples] until now It must be performed by an assembly of ten [monks] in a central region or five in a remote region The distinction between a central region and a remote region may be made in terms of geography, in which case, roughly speaking, central India is considered to be the central region,43 and the regions exterior to be remote regions In spiritual terms, a central region is an area where the Buddha’s teachings as transmission and as spiritual accomplishment44 are found, and the remote regions are those in which these are not found The Vows of Personal Liberation 91 The Candidate [b] Men or women of the three continents are suitable candidates Only men and women of three continents45 are suitable candidates for any of the eight vows of personal liberation Accordingly, Gunaprabha’s [Fundamental] Summary of Discipline 46 says: Non-humans and inhabitants of the northern [continent] of Unpleasant Sound are not eligible candidates for the vows Eunuchs and hermaphrodites are also not eligible to assume the vows The scriptures on discipline, however, mention that the naga Kumaraka observed the purificatory fast on the eighth day of the [lunar] month Furthermore, the Stories of Buddha’s Former Lives recounts details of four [animals], such as an “elder” partridge, who observed the purificatory fast.47 Traditionalists take these accounts literally and thus believe that animals and other beings can assume [the precepts of] the purificatory fast Unfavorable Conditions and Obstacles for the Conferral of Vows [c] In assuming the vows, the candidate must not be bound by five stipulations, and must be free of the four obstacles While assuming the vows of personal liberation, the candidate must not make any of the following five stipulations with regard to region, time, situation, persons, and minor rules: (1) To intend to safeguard the vows provided one is living in a region that has supportive conditions, but not in others; (2) To intend to safeguard the vows for at least a month or a year, but not longer, thinking that one would not be able to so; (3) To intend to maintain the vows in all situations, except in case of war; (4) To intend to abstain from murder, unless the other is one’s enemy; (5) To intend to keep the major rules, but not the minor ones An aspirant who attends the ceremony for monastic ordination with the wish to become a monk (or likewise, a novice) but makes any of these five stipulations will not actually assume the vows, but will at least have participated in something good 92 Buddhist Ethics Furthermore, the candidate must be free of the obstacles that would prevent assuming the vows, the obstacles to abiding by them, and obstacles to their meaningfulness, plus obstacles concerning physical appearance, explained, respectively, as follows: (1) Being a neuter person or one who has committed [any of] the crimes of immediate retribution or other [serious offenses], etc.48; (2) Not having the approval of one’s [country’s] ruler, or of one’s parents or guardians, etc.49; (3) Not being able to drive away crows [meaning to be less than eight years old], or being incapacitated by [serious] sickness or affliction, etc.50; (4) Having blond hair or deformed ears, etc.51 These stipulations and obstacles, however, are not considered detrimental factors in assuming the precepts of the lay practitioner or those of the purificatory fast Favorable Conditions for the Conferral of Vows [d] This section has two parts: (1) temporary vows, and (2) vows for life Temporary Vows [i] An aspirant who has not gone for refuge cannot assume the personal liberation vows The precepts of the purificatory fast are observed for a day and may be conferred by any person holding the precepts The Treasury of Phenomenology 52 states: Except for the person who has not gone for refuge, Anyone may assume [the purificatory fast] vows Thus expressed, an aspirant who has not gone for refuge in the Three Jewels53 cannot receive the precepts of the purificatory fast or, for that matter, any of the vows of personal liberation Analysts assert that any of the eight classes of personal liberation vows must be conferred by a monk However, Traditionalists say that the precepts of the purificatory fast may be taken from anyone who is observing the purificatory fast, either a lay practitioner or a renunciate Accordingly, the Brahmana Vyasa Scripture54 states: in the presence of one who has knowledge of the ceremony, whether it be a monk, a brahman, a householder, or a novice The Vows of Personal Liberation 93 Also, the Analysis of Discipline Scripture55 mentions that the layman Anathapindika56 transmitted the precepts of the purificatory fast to a large crowd of people In any case, the various perspectives agree that the aspirant must assume the eight precepts of the purificatory fast before dawn in the presence of a practitioner holding the same precepts and preserve them until sunrise of the next day, a period of one full day When assuming these precepts for the first time, the aspirant may promise the teacher that he or she will also maintain the precepts on the [days of the] full moon, the new moon, and the eighth day of every [lunar] month Despite that [promise], each time that aspirant intends to practice the purificatory fast, he or she must assume the precepts anew According to the Analysts, making a single promise [to maintain these eight precepts on the various days of the month] allows one to retake the precepts [on the next occasion] even after having eaten.57 According to the Traditionalists, [this promise] authorizes one to retake the precepts by oneself in front of a representation [of the Three Jewels] The main part of the ceremony [for the transmission of the precepts of the purificatory fast] involves repeating the words of the preceptor three times while sitting lower than him or her Vows for Life [ii] The layperson’s precepts, the novice’s, and the monk’s ordination are conferred in their respective ceremonies The ceremony for the monk’s ordination requires ten essential elements The three levels of vows—those of the lay practitioner, the novice, and the monk—are conferred in ceremonies that fulfill the requisites for their respective level [As to the order,] higher grades of discipline cannot be given unless the candidate has received the lower ones The following description of the procedure for the conferral of vows is made in terms of an aspirant who is assuming all three types of discipline (An independent ceremony must be performed in the case of someone who wishes to follow only the precepts of the lay practitioner or only the novice precepts.) The vows of a lay practitioner may constitute a “partial discipline” (consisting of one, two, three, or four precepts) or a “perfect discipline” 94 Buddhist Ethics (comprising five precepts as the basis of training) Only the perfect discipline of holding five precepts may be considered as the actual lay practitioner discipline that constitutes two [i.e., male and female] of the eight categories of personal liberation vows For the first level, a monk qualified to be the ordaining preceptor for a renunciate asks [the aspirant] questions concerning obstacles to determine whether or not he is suitable to be admitted into the order.58 Then, as the main part [of the ceremony of the first level],59 the aspirant accepts the commitments of refuge and the lay practitioner’s precepts As the conclusion, the aspirant promises to follow the training [The ceremony] for those individuals who are assuming only a partial [lay] discipline (and are not going to become renunciates) is modified to omit the questions concerning obstacles To become a novice (the second level), the aspirant participates in the preparatory phase of the ceremony for the interim renunciate.60 The ceremonial master asks the aspirant questions61 to determine whether he has any obstacles that could prevent him from being ordained If the aspirant is free of obstacles, the ceremonial master addresses the members of the monastic community with the request to admit him into the order Once permission is granted, the aspirant himself entreats the ordaining preceptor to ordain him as a novice.62 During the course of this preparatory phase of the ceremony, three transformations take place: the aspirant changes his outward appearance, name, and attitude For the main part [of the ceremony], the ordaining preceptor entrusts the aspirant to the ceremonial master With the certainty that the aspirant is free from the four kinds of obstacles that would make him ineligible for ordination and possesses all five favorable conditions, the ceremonial master guides the aspirant, beginning with the refuge [vows], in assuming the novice vows At the conclusion of the ceremony, a monk [who is neither the ordaining preceptor nor the ceremonial master] measures the [length of the] shadow63 and announces the time [of day, month, season, and year] that the novice ordination was received The teacher states the ten rules of the novice and makes [sure the aspirant] confirms his commitment to maintain them ... retake the precepts by oneself in front of a representation [of the Three Jewels] The main part of the ceremony [for the transmission of the precepts of the purificatory fast] involves repeating the. .. determine whether or not he is suitable to be admitted into the order .58 Then, as the main part [of the ceremony of the first level] ,59 the aspirant accepts the commitments of refuge and the lay practitioner’s... assuming the vows, the candidate must not be bound by five stipulations, and must be free of the four obstacles While assuming the vows of personal liberation, the candidate must not make any of the