Schroeder, M., Mckeough, A., Graham, S., Stock, H., & Bisanz, G. (2009) Research in Science Education

University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Arts Arts Research & Publications 2008-01 The Contribution of Trade Books to Early Science Literacy: In and Out of School Schroeder, Meadow; McKeough, Anne M.; Graham, Susan; Stock, Hayli R.; Bisanz, Gay L Springer Schroeder, M., McKeough, A M., Graham, S A., Stock, H R., & Bisanz, G L (2009) The Contribution of Trade Books to Early Science Literacy: In and Out of School "Research in Science Education" 2009: 39 pp 231-250 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11165-008-9082-0 http://hdl.handle.net/1880/112096 journal article https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 Unless otherwise indicated, this material is protected by copyright and has been made available with authorization from the copyright owner You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 DOI 10.1007/s11165-008-9082-0 The Contribution of Trade Books to Early Science Literacy: In and Out of School Meadow Schroeder & Anne Mckeough & Susan Graham & Hayli Stock & Gay Bisanz Published online: 22 May 2008 # Springer Science + Business Media B.V 2008 Abstract Lifelong science literacy begins with attitudes and interests established early in childhood The use of trade books (i.e., a literary work intended for sale to the general public) in North American school classrooms to support the development of science literacy invites an examination of the quality of science content disseminated to students A total of 116 trade books were examined to: (a) determine the degree to which science trade books complement expected science knowledge outcomes outlined in school curricula, and (b) compare trade book content to the goals of scientific literacy Analysis across four science topics, Dinosaurs, Space, Inheritance, and Growth and Life Properties, revealed that this body of children’s literature is inconsistent in its coverage of curricular goals and elements of scientific literacy Because trade books represent children’s first exposure to science, these shortcomings should be addressed if these books are to be maximally effective in promoting science literacy Implications for using trade books in the classroom are discussed Keywords Science literacy Elementary education Education Trade book Science literature Nature of science Science curricula Elementary science Science-technology-society M Schroeder (*) : A Mckeough : H Stock Division of Applied Psychology, EdT 302 University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr N.W., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4 e-mail: schroedm@ucalgary.ca A Mckeough e-mail: mckeough@ucalgary.ca H Stock e-mail: hrstock@ucalgary.ca S Graham Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr N.W., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4 e-mail: grahams@ucalgary.ca G Bisanz University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada 232 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 Early Science Literacy: What Trade Books Contribute? Textbooks remain the favored educational genre for disseminating information in classrooms despite the fact that they have been criticized for many shortcomings (Goldman and Bisanz 2002; Ogens 1991; Shymansky et al 1991) In particular, they have been criticized for their inability to accommodate the range of learning styles and reading levels found in classrooms (Baker and Saul 1994; Chavkin 1997) Students have reported that textbooks contain an overwhelmingly large number of new vocabulary terms (Guzzeti et al 1995; Ogens 1991) Main ideas are often imbedded within nonessential information and technical terminology causing readers difficulty in identifying the most important concepts (Guzzeti et al 1995; Kesidou and Roseman 2002; Roseman et al 1999) Due to space constraints, many textbook analyses have found that the focus on foundational concepts is inadequate, there are a high number of errors, and science content is oversimplified (Clifford 2002; dePosada 1999; Garnett and Treagust 1990; Haury 2000; Kesidou and Roseman 2002; Roth et al 1999; Sanger and Greenbowe 1997; Standsfield 2006) Other analyses have revealed that science texts reserve only a small amount of space to discuss the social relevance of science (commonly referred to as science-technology-society or STS), and how science relates to real-world experience (Chiang-Soong and Yager 1993; Chiappetta et al 1993; Guzzeti et al 1995) In response to these limitations, textbook usage by North American teachers has diminished, especially in the early grades (Tolman et al 1998), and trade books have been suggested as an alternative source for supporting science learning (Ebbers 2002; Haury 2000; Madrazo 1997; Nordstrom 1992; Shanahan 2004) A trade book is a literary work intended for sale to the general public and does not include educational or scholarly books Trade books are seen as more advantageous than textbooks in that they often include more relevant and interesting scientific information, come in variety of genres, and have inviting, colorful, and familiar formats (Daisey 1994; Fisher 1980; Madrazo 1997; Rice et al 2001) The writing styles often contain familiar language, a friendly tone, and storylines that place science concepts in a familiar context to allow for greater understanding and maintain students’ interest (Butzow and Butzow 2000) Experimental programs that have replaced textbooks with trade books reported successful learning by students in both science and reading (Guthrie et al 1999; McMahon et al 2000; Romance and Vitale 2001) Research has also suggested that students who are taught science using trade book literature as supplements to textbooks are better able to understand difficult scientific concepts, and are more likely to read science-based books on their own (Moore and Moore 1989; Morrow et al 1990) Advocating the use of trade books in the classroom, however, suggests the need to first determine if they meet two important criteria The first criterion is to determine how well trade book content matches the goals of science curriculum This is especially relevant because trade books are not published for the use in educational settings but rather for the general public (Giblin 2000; Hade 2002) With a focus on pleasing public tastes, trade books vary in their coverage of science education standards Although some studies and reviews have provided valuable information for educators on how to choose appropriate trade books for the classroom setting (Bamford and Kristo 1998; Butzow and Butzow 2000; Children’s Book Council/The National Science Teachers Association 2002; Rice et al 2001), there is a paucity of literature that has examined how trade book content matches curricula requirements for early elementary science (Broemmel and Rearden 2006; Ford 2006) One of the aims of this study was to examine the extent to which trade book content complements the education goals outlined by the National Research Council (1996) and Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 233 The Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration on School Curriculum [Council of Ministers of Education (CMEC) 1997] Our goal here was to determine whether there is enough coverage of curricula that a teacher might profitably use the trade books with their students, and if so, to what degree there is a curricular match A second criterion trade books need to meet when considering their use in school classrooms is the degree to which they support the goals of scientific literacy The development of a scientifically literate public is considered an important curricular goal of science education (American Association for the Advancement of Science 1990, 1993; DeBoer 1991, 2000; National Research Council 1996; Oliver et al 2001) Definitions of scientific literacy vary within the literature but three common elements can be identified (Bisanz et al 1998; DeBoer 1991; Eisenhart et al 1996; Korpan et al 1997; Oliver et al 2001; Roberts 2007; Zachos et al 2000) The first element of scientific literacy relates to the development of good science process skills, that is, those skills routinely performed by practicing scientists such as estimation, manipulation, and observation and skills that require familiarity with basic scientific facts and concepts A second element of scientific literacy is an understanding of nature of science Typically the nature of science is referred to as how scientists come to know scientific knowledge (Driver et al 1996; Helms and Carlone 1999; Lederman 2007; Osborne et al 2003) From the literature we have identified four general tenets: (a) knowledge is tentative and subject to change as new information becomes available, therefore, it is cumulative; (b) knowledge is empirically based on observations of the natural world and involves discovery; (c) knowledge involves the invention of explanation through human inference (claims); and (d) knowledge is supported by argumentation, theories, and laws (Elder 2002; Driver et al 1996; Sandoval 2005) Finally, a third element of scientific literacy is an understanding of the role of science and technology within the social and cultural context (STS) Not only is there an influence of technological products on our everyday living, but scientific knowledge influences how we interpret the natural phenomena of our world As a system of thought, it shapes our narratives and our public policies In turn, science is practiced in the context of a larger culture and its practitioners are the product of that culture (Driver et al 1996) An understanding of STS can support students in decision making and to make sense of the natural world by focusing on real-world problems (Mbajiorgu 2002; Yager 1992) The desired outcome of teaching students about the interaction of science, technology, and society are citizens who are able to respond to scientific issues in a critical and active way (National Science Teachers Association 1990) The definition of scientific literacy can also be expanded to include aspects of reading and writing These areas are important, but for the purposes of this study, scientific literacy was limited to the three elements described above Why is scientific literacy important? In our increasingly advanced society, citizens are constantly required to form opinions on public issues that may be controversial such as global warming or stem cell research (Goldman and Bisanz 2002; Norris and Phillips 1994) In order to this, the average layperson must have some understanding of how science information has been established, under what circumstances we consider knowledge reliable, and how agreement of knowledge is maintained Having this understanding is thought to provide the foundation to critically examine science and make informed decisions The literature on scientific literacy has revealed the consistent failure of our current education system to develop a scientifically literate society (Eisenhart et al 1996; Korpan et al 1999; Ogens 1991; Wagner et al 2002; Zimmerman et al 1998) Miller (1991) reported that only about 6% of American adults met international standards for knowledge about science facts and theories Norris and Phillips (1994) found that Grade 12 Canadian science 234 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 students had not yet acquired the necessary skills to accurately judge the scientific status of media reports of scientific findings Only half the students demonstrated knowledge of the elements of scientific argument Furthermore, Yeaton et al (1990) found that university students can also be overly accepting of generalizations of health-related research extracted from newspapers and magazines Thus, our future adult citizens are graduating from the school system without the skills necessary to accurately interpret scientific information Examining the degree to which science trade books meet desired science literacy outcomes specified for young children is important in order to determine whether they can be a viable component of instruction In an earlier analysis, Ford (2006) examined the explicit and implicit conceptions of the nature of science in trade books Trade books were analyzed for their representations of science and scientists, using the Helms and Carlone (1999) heuristic This heuristic examined the methods utilized by scientists, information about and images of scientists, the type of knowledge presented (e.g., certain versus uncertain), science within the scientific community, and purpose of science Some of these categories are similar to those we used in this study (e.g., methods, information about scientists, and knowledge as uncertain); however, the current study differs from that of Ford (2006) in key ways First, we examined the extent to which trade books made young children aware of science concepts Second, instead of dividing the empirical methods subcategories by observation and experimentation, this study examined the extent to which trade books demonstrated to the readers how they might certain experiments themselves We defined the nature of science more narrowly than Ford but examined certain aspects in more detail including the idea that science is cumulative, involves discovery, claims, evidence, and theories (Driver et al 1996) In addition to identifying elements of primary level scientific literacy in the trade books, the study also examined the genre in which the books are written Different genres draw upon different knowledge bases of readers and have an effect on cognitive processing and learning (Brewer 1980; Spiro and Taylor 1987) Narrative or story-based books, for example, tend to be easier to understand for readers than expository/informational texts because readers are less familiar with expository texts and how they are organized (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1982; Bock and Brewer 1985) Although expository/information style books are often overlooked by teachers (Pappas 2006), they can be useful for providing valuable facts and descriptions of science phenomena (Newton et al 2002; Pappas 2006) Informational trade books can also help to foster the learning of science discourse, that is, the technical language or vocabulary of science (Wellington and Osborne 2001) Thus, exposing children to a variety of genres and sub genres (i.e., informational/expository, including explanatory and descriptive, and narrative, including fantasy and realistic fiction) is important in supporting science learning (Johns 2001) In sum, the study focused on two goals The first goal was to examine the degree to which science trade books complement expected science knowledge outcomes outlined in North American school curricula for Kindergarten to Grade The second goal was to compare trade book content to the goals of scientific literacy Method Sample Selection The trade books analyzed in this study were sampled from public libraries located in a large city of Western Canada The goal was to select a representative sample (not an exhaustive Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 235 one) of trade books that were accessible to both teachers and families of children enrolled in Kindergarten through Grade To ensure that there was not a selection bias, research assistants searched the online library catalogue over the course of a month We terminated our search when our efforts failed to turn up additional volumes after approximately 20 h of searching To narrow the scope of science topics to a manageable number, we developed a set of criteria for topic selection The topics selected had to meet the following criteria: (a) represent at least one of the following three categories: Life Science, Physical Science1, and/or Earth Science, (b) deal with concepts that have traditionally been viewed as important to science, (c) have a reasonable number of children’s publications across the targeted age span, and (d) be of interest to children2 Some of the trade books belonged to a set that covered the same topic (e.g., space books for every planet) In this case, only one volume was selected from the set since analyzing the entire set would present the same type of information and skew the sample The four topics met the aforementioned criteria: Dinosaurs, Space, Inheritance (the process by which organisms reproduce or create offspring), and Growth and Life Properties (identifying living things and understanding how organisms change and adapt to their environment as they mature) Of the 123 trade books initially selected within these four topics, 116 met our selection criteria Analytic Framework School curricula The framework that was developed to compare trade book content to school curricula guidelines (Kindergarten to Grade 3) was based on the Pan-Canadian Protocol for Collaboration on School Curriculum (CMEC 1997), and the National Science Educational Standards (NRC 1996) The CMEC is the national voice for education in Canada, and is a standard from which education ministers of each province and territory develop common learning outcomes The science learning outcomes of the CMEC are very similar to the science standards of the NRC The NRC developed The National Science Education Standards to support the development of a scientific literate population The standards map out the scientific literacy knowledge and competencies to be attained at each grade level Curriculum goals were grouped into three main topic areas: Life Science, Earth and Space Science, and Physical Science Under each main topic area, specific learning goals were chosen for their consistency with both the NRC and CMEC guidelines We then examined each book to determine the presence or absence of each learning outcome (see Table 1) Scientific literacy The analytic framework for determining if trade books support scientific literacy was derived from the literature (Bisanz et al 1998; DeBoer 1991; Eisenhart et al 1996; Elder 2002; Goldman and Bisanz 2002; Korpan et al 1997; NRC 1996; Oliver et al 2001; Roberts 2007; Sandoval 2005; Zachos et al 2000) Based on this literature, we examined three elements of scientific literacy: (a) science process (i.e., asking questions, making observations, gathering data, and describing how to conduct experiments); (b) nature of science (i.e., science is cumulative, including both established and cutting-edge Initially we included energy as a topic but it was eliminated because few trade books could be found Consequently, no topic falls within this category Topics were discussed with a panel of six developmental psychologists and one librarian who specialized in children’s literature who reached consensus that the selected topics were of interest to children in the targeted age range 236 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 Table Analytical framework Main category Operational definition Support of formal learning Life science In grades K-3, all students should develop an understanding of (a) the characteristics of organisms, (b) life cycles of organisms, and (c) organisms and environments Physical science In grades K-3, all students should develop an understanding of (a) properties of objects and materials, (b) position and motion of objects, and (c) light, heat, electricity, and magnetism Subcategories Example Identifies similarities and differences in the needs/ characteristics of living things “A seed needs many things to grow It needs soil and water and sun If a seed has all these things, it will grow into a plant.” Book 38 Describes different ways “The caterpillar needs food that humans and other in order to grow It folds up living things move to meet a leaf and sticks it together their needs with silk The caterpillar hides inside and eats the leaf.” Book 101 Introduces vocabulary to “Little roots will be growing bring meaning to what is from the big root They are seen, felt, smelled, heard, like tiny white hairs They tasted, and thought are called root hairs.” Book 18 “When you compare Identifies constant and different handprints, you changing traits in can see that older people’s organisms as they grow hands are bigger than and develop children’s.” Book 56 Identifies variations that “It’s hard to believe that a make living things unique tiny acorn will grow into a huge oak tree or that a small puppy can grow into a big, strong dog Living things grow bigger as they get older.” Book 59 Explores how characteristics None of materials may change as a result of manipulating them Demonstrates ways we can use materials to make different sounds Describes and demonstrates ways to use everyday materials to produce static electric charges, and describe how charged materials interact None None Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 237 Table (continued) Main category Operational definition Subcategories Example “While a planet is orbiting around the sun, it is moving another way, too It spins, or rotates The time it takes for a planet to rotate is its day Each planet’s day is different While a planet is rotating, part of it faces the sun It is daytime there On the other side it is nighttime.” Book 19 Identifies object use, how “Since 1600, scientists with they are used, and for what telescopes had been able to purpose they are used study Mars If they were going to learn more, the needed a much closer look In 1964, the American space agency, NASA, sent a spacecraft to mars It was called the Mariner It did not carry any people on board but it did carry special cameras.” Book “The asteroid will cause an Observes and describes enormous explosion… changes in sunlight and black soot will fill the air how these changes affect and block out the sun… living things plants won’t grow, and millions of living things will become extinct…” Book 27 Identifies and explores ways “The scientists at NASA to use tools to help carry were not the only ones who out a variety of useful got to see the Pathfinder’s tasks pictures right away People all over the world could see them on their computers Through the Internet, people saw pictures taken on Mars just a few hours earlier.” Book 60 Space and In grades K-3, all students Describes changes in heat Earth Science should develop an and light from the sun understanding of (a) properties of earth materials, (b) objects in the sky, and (c) changes in earth and sky Support of science literacy Raises awareness or offers Increases Makes readers aware of a detailed information understanding topic/idea/issue, and of science expands the knowledge concepts typically held by readers at a particular age level “What happens when a meteorite hits the ground? A big meteorite can create a crater, a hole formed when it hits the Earth Most meteorites are too small to make craters, but 238 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 Table (continued) Main category Science processes Operational definition Explains science in such a way that the reader understands how science progresses and evolves (e g., through discovery and experimentation) and empirical methods Subcategories Science involves asking systematic questions The nature of scientific knowledge and how scientists come to know that knowledge there are exceptions.” Book 111 “Every time we find the answer to one scientific question, more questions pop up No matter how much we find out, there is always more to learn.” Book 82 “How can scientists tell if fossils are male or female? Scientists guess that slimmer, more delicate fossils were female, and the bigger, heavier fossils were male….But the truth is, we really don’t know for sure which is which!” Book 13 Science involves the process “What happened to the of gathering data dinosaurs? You look for clues Clues can help us find out what happened to the dinosaurs We get clues from dinosaur fossils.” Book 35 “We have looked at how The text describes how baby animals and humans readers/listeners might grow Now you can a certain scientific whole experiment to see experiments how a plant grows…soak a bean in a saucer of water for a day…[etc.] After a couple of days you will notice a tiny root appearing.” Book 91 Science is cumulative (e.g., “We used to think all we used to think “X,” but dinosaurs were very now we think “Y”) sluggish and slow Dinosaur tracks tell us that this was not really so By studying tracks scientists now have ways to figure out how fast different dinosaurs could run Some, they say, were pretty speedy.” Book 114 Science involves discovery “Of course, just knowing and experimentation how old the meteorites are doesn’t tell us how the Solar System was formed Science involves making observations Nature of science Example Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 239 Table (continued) Main category Operational definition Subcategories Example But by studying the chemical elements in meteorites, we can learn something about the chemicals that combined to form the planets, moons, asteroids, and Sun.” Book Science involves claims, “What did dinosaurs sound evidence, and conclusions like? We’ll probably never know, but it’s fun to guess! The hollow tube in the crests of some duckbilled dinosaurs suggest that they made loud, mooselike sounds.” Book 13 Science involves “When scientists found the argumentation, first Maiasaura nests, they explanations, theories and saw: crushed eggshells, justifications showing that babies might have stayed in nests and stepped on shells Skeletons of different sizes, showing that babies might have grown bigger in nests Worn down baby teeth, showing that babies might have eaten food brought by parents.” Book 25 “On July 20, 1969, two Identification Makes a link between It presents science as American astronauts with scientific science and everyday life something that is became the first living community interesting, tells the story of a scientist’s life and their things ever to set foot on the Moon Their names contributions, or emphasizes the importance were Neil Armstrong and of specific scientific work Buzz Aldrin, and their space mission was called Apollo 11.” Book 51 Role of science Describes how science (and “What are rockets used for? in society technology) have impacted Rockets are mainly used to our world put machines called satellites into orbit around the Earth Different kinds of satellites are launched to many different jobs Satellites can be used by one country to spy on another Satellite photographs and maps help scientists to study the Earth and what it’s made of…” Book 115 240 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 Table (continued) Main category Knowledge Operational definition Subcategories Example The quality of information presented- factual information, unknown knowledge, or misleading Established science: factual information “What cells is make copies of themselves It is very clever Each cell starts by growing a little bigger And then it splits in two.” Book 72 “A great dream lies ahead for the year 2020 By then, scientists want to land human explorers on Mars….Scientists are working out ways to make the long round trip to Mars safe for humans.” Book 63 “Now when there is no sound the moon can tell you feel frightened and are lonely The moon will stay awake for you The moon will stay awake for you until you too are sleeping.” Book 71 Cutting-edge science: unknown knowledge, discussion of emerging knowledge or recently developed theories Misleading science: Books may present information that is misleading or of poor quality science, and involves discovery, claims, and theories); and STS (i.e., identification with scientific community and role of science in society) Additionally, to determine if trade books advanced science concepts and did not simply appeal to a commercial market (Giblin 2000; Hade 2002), we also included understanding of science concepts as a category Genre The analytic framework for genre was developed in four stages First, we utilized the framework of Goldman and Bisanz (2002) to categorize the books, which focused on structural aspects of the text (Johns 2001) Two categories were formed: narrative and informational/expository After an initial analysis, the framework was revised based on the trends observed in the trade books For example, it became evident that some authors combined narrative and informational/expository genres; therefore, a third category, labeled combination, was created for texts that included both narrative and expository structure In the third stage, the trade books were analyzed once more with the revised framework and further revisions were made For example, trade books that were categorized as biographies were moved to the combination genre when it was realized that none of the books in this category were without an information component With revisions to the analytical framework completed, two researchers scored 25% of the trade books in order to assess the reliability of the framework The two researchers subsequently discussed their analyses and reached a consensus Finally, one of the two researchers analyzed the entire sample a final time Table provides an outline of the analytical framework with examples for each category Results The results of the analysis are reported as follows: first, we provide descriptive information about the books (publication date, target age), second, we describe the genre, and finally, Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 241 we examine how the books supported formal learning and science literacy Representative quotes from the sample trade books are included to clarify coding categories The average publication date of the 116 trade books was 1993 with a range of 1973–2003 The books were intended for children in Kindergarten to Grade Genre The genre analysis contained three main categories: (a) information/expository, (b) narrative, and (c) combination Table provides an analysis of trade book genre The largest genre category, informational/ expository, accounted for 39% (n=45) of the sample This genre focuses on explaining science concepts (the “how” and “why” of phenomena) or describing science concepts in detail (the “what” of phenomena) and is similar to textbooks in the way information is disseminated Four of the informational/expository books were explanatory in nature whereas within the genre, 47% (n=21) were descriptive and 44% (n=20) were a combination of explanatory and descriptive Twenty-five percent of the total sample (n=29) was in a narrative style Narrative books include science within the context of a story with the primary goal of entertaining the reader The majority (n=24) of the 29 narrative books were coded as fantasy An additional two books were myths and three were realistic fiction (presents realistic experiences and characters) Inheritance books tended to be the major contributor to this category (70%) The final genre category, a combination of information/expository and narrative was the second largest genre category at 36% (n=42) of the total sample Books in this category were either non-fiction narratives that contained explanatory or descriptive information or fiction that contained explanations of descriptions of science concepts and process More books in this category were on the topic of Growth and Life Properties (55%, n=23) than any other topic Table Genres across science topics Informational/expository Explanatory Descriptive Combination Total expository Narrative Myth Fantasy Realistic fiction Total narrative Combination (Informational and narrative) Non-fiction with concepts/process information Fiction with concepts/process information Total combination Dinosaurs (n=23) n (%) Space (n=21) n (%) Growth/LP (n=40) n (%) – 10 (43) (9) 12 (52) 3 (5) (14) (14) (33) 14 17 – (13) (5) (19) (5) (29) (9) (26) (35) (13) – (3) (5) (35) (43) Inheritance (n=32) n (%) Total (N=116) N (%) (6) (19) (3) (28) 21 20 45 (3) (18) (17) (39) – – – – 17 20 (3) (53) (6) (63) 24 29 (2) (21) (3) (25) (5) – – (33) (38) 23 (58) 23 (58) (9) (9) (3) 39 (34) 42 (36) 242 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 Support of Formal Learning Eighty-six percent (n=74) of the total sample supported at least one general learning outcome in support of formal learning, as identified in the NRC (1996) and CMEC (1997) Table describes the number of trade books that met curricula standards Life Science had the largest number of books that met the specified learning outcomes Forty-two percent Table Support of formal learning Category description Life science Identifies similarities and differences in the needs/characteristics of living things Describes different ways that humans and other living things move to meet their needs Introduces vocabulary to bring meaning to what is seen, felt, smelled, heard, tasted and thought Identifies constant and changing traits in organisms as they grow and develop Identifies variations that make living things unique Physical science Explores how characteristics of materials may change as a result of manipulating them Demonstrates ways we can use materials to make different sounds Describes and demonstrates ways to use everyday materials to produce static electric charges, and describe how charged materials interact Space and earth science Describes changes in heat and light from the sun Identifies objects use, how they are used, and for what purpose they are used Observes and describes changes in sunlight and how these changes affect living things Identifies and explores ways to use tools to help carry out a variety of useful tasks Total support for formal learning by topic Dinosaurs Space Growth/LP Inheritance (n=23) (n=21) (n=40) (n=32) n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Total (N=116) N (%) (22) – 10 (25) 18 (56) 33 (28) (22) – 12 (30) (16) 22 (19) (6) 20 (17) – – (35) (19) 14 (35) – 38 (95) 11 (34) 49 (42) – (13) 21 (66) 34 (29) – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – (5) – – (1) – (29) – – (5) (18) – 11 (48) – (5) – (3) (15) 10 (48) 40 (100) All dashes (–) indicate n=0 trade books in that category – 27 (84) (4) (6) 86 (74) Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 243 (n=49) of the sample discussed constant and changing traits in organisms as they grow and develop For example, Book stated, “Adult frogs lay eggs, called spawn, in ponds The eggs hatch into tadpoles Over several weeks a tadpole’s tail shrinks, it grows legs, and then turns into a frog.” Twenty-nine percent (n=34) of the sample identified variations that make living things unique, and another 28% (n=33) identified the similarities and differences in the needs and characteristics of living things The sample was less efficient at covering the last two learning outcomes: describing different ways that humans and other living things move to meet their needs (19%) and introducing science vocabulary or terms that represent scientific concepts and phenomena (17%) The majority of books that met Life Science learning outcomes are within the topics of Growth and Life Properties and Inheritance, and to a lesser degree, Dinosaurs This was not surprising since these topics relate closely to Life Science However, the degree to which each topic covered the learning outcomes varied considerably from 6% (n=2) to 66% (n= 21) This suggests that these books vary considerably in the quality of science content and how they cover specific curricula None of the trade books met the learning outcomes under Physical Science It is likely that these outcomes better matched topics for which there were not a substantial number of trade books available such as the topic of Energy It is important to note that there is a paucity of trade books accessible to the general public that help to address these important curricular goals Under Earth and Space Science, a smaller number of trade books cover content specific to the curriculum goals Seven trade books (6%) in the sample focused on using tools to help answer science problems with Space (n=1) and Growth (n=6) topics the sole contributors For example, Book 71 states, “(cells) are too small to look at with just your eyes You’d need a microscope to see them all.” Six trade books described how objects are used and for what purpose, and another five books described changes in sunlight and their effect on living things Support of Science Literacy Table presents the means and percentages for trade book support of science literacy Within this analysis, it was possible for each trade book to fall into more than one subcategory A large portion of the sample (85%, n=99) aimed to increase understanding of science concepts by making readers aware of issues and ideas beyond their age level The topics Dinosaurs and Growth had the largest number of books in this category with 96 and 99%, respectively, meeting the coding criteria Only 16% (n=18) of the total sample discussed science processes pertinent to conducting science Books in this category covered the ideas that science involves asking systematic questions, making observations, and gathering data For example book 81 mentions that “Scientists have never found a dinosaur brain, but they can tell brain sizes from skull fossils They have found that the biggest dinosaurs had the smallest brains.” Discussion around observation and gathering data were the most commonly mentioned science processes with 10 and 13%, respectively, of the sample falling into these categories Coverage was scarce throughout the individual topics, but Dinosaurs had the most books in this category with a tally of nine (39%) Twenty-one percent (n=24) of the sample described aspects of the nature of science The subcategory with the greatest coverage by the sample was that science involves discovery with 15% (n=17) of the sample containing this kind of content The topics Dinosaurs and Space had books fall in all four subcategories with 48% and 29%, 244 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 Table Trade book support of science literacy Increased understanding of science concepts Science Processes Systematic Observation Gather data Experiments Nature of science Cumulative Discovery Claims Theories Identification with science community Role of science in society Knowledge Established information Cutting-edge information Crazy or misleading Dinosaurs (n=23) n (%) Space (n=21) n (%) Growth/LP (n=40) n (%) Inheritance (n=32) n (%) 22 (96) 14 (67) 39 (99) 24 (75) 99 (85) – 2 – – – – 1 – – – 1 – 18 (16) (3) 12 (10) 15 (13) (9) 24 (21) (8) 17 (15) 15 (13) 11 (9) 22 (19) (7) 9 11 11 7 10 (39) (13) (30) (39) (9) (48) (26) (48) (30) (30) (43) (22) (29) (10) (10) (19) (5) (29) (14) (24) (14) (14) 6(29) (10) 19 (83) (9) (17) 14 (67) (19) (10) (5) (5) (5) (3) (3) (13) (3) 40 (100) – – (3) (3) (3) (3) (19) (16) (3) (3) 23 (72) (3) (3) Total (N=116) N (%) 96 (83) (6) (6) respectively, of books meeting the criteria of at least one subcategory Growth had only one book in this category, falling under discovery Analysis of identification with the scientific community demonstrated a similar pattern to that of nature of science Nineteen percent (n=22) of the sample fell in this category, with numbers ranging from 10 books (43%) in the Dinosaurs topic to one (3%) in Inheritance The category, role of science in society, was represented by the sample to an even lesser extent with 7% (n=8) meeting the criteria and five of the books in the category from the Dinosaurs topic A total of 83% (n=96) of the sample contained information that is established fact The topic with the lowest percentage of established information was Space (67%, n=14) This indicates that 17% of the total sample contained no or minimal basic information about science to the reader In terms of presenting cutting-edge information or controversial positions about science, 6% (n=7) of the sample fell in this subcategory The same percentage of trade books (6%) contained information that could potentially be misleading to the reader or was of poor quality Discussion This study examined early science literature written for children in Kindergarten to Grade The goals were to compare trade book content to NRC (1996) and CMEC (1997) curricula standards and to elements of scientific literacy Trade book genres were also examined The trade books included in this study varied in the literary genres in which topics were discussed Trade books containing informational/expository or combined expository and narrative genres were more common than books with an exclusively narrative style Given that the sole purpose of expository text is to inform, not entertain (Johns 2001), and that it is Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 245 the predominant text genre used in scientific inquiry, it is not surprising that this type of text is popular in science trade books Examining the texts with an informational/expository genre in more detail revealed that description or a combination of description/explanatory techniques was the dominant style This implies that a majority of trade books discussed the “what” of science but not the “how” and “why” of phenomena The small amount of explanatory information compared to descriptive information in trade books was disappointing given that it is through discussions of “how” and “why” phenomena occur that individuals come to understand science processes Using Trade Books as Tools in Learning Curriculum Across topics, the information presented in trade books did not correspond well to the school curriculum categories Although 74% of trade books in the sample met at least one curricular goal, this ranged from 48% of Dinosaurs and Space books to 100% for the topic of Growth Life Science had the largest number of trade books that met the curricular goals; however, even within this category, there was limited representation To illustrate, the subcategories of life science (see Table 3) ranged from 42% to 17% None of the trade books discussed the learning outcomes in the category of Physical Science, and within Earth and Space Science, subcategory representation ranged from 6% to 1% If trade books are to be used consistently within the formal educational setting, there is a need for books that correspond more specifically to the desired learning outcomes With such variation between and among trade book topics, there is a mismatch between what educators deem important for children to know in science and the goals of book publishers What is particularly alarming is the gap in the available literature for books that meet curricular goals under Physical Science and Earth and Space Science It is clear from this analysis that relying on trade books in early elementary school will not provide sufficient coverage of important concepts without educational support in other areas Using Trade Books to Convey Elements of Scientific Literacy Educators who wish to use trade books in instruction as a tool to introduce elements of scientific literacy will be hard pressed to find trade books that serve this purpose The majority of the trade books in the current sample covered certain aspects of science literacy, such as the nature of science, but neglected other elements In addition, coverage of science literacy varied depending on the topic For example, Growth and Inheritance, covered science processes significantly less than the topics of Space and Dinosaurs The least represented element of scientific literacy was science in the social context (STS) Understanding scientific issues and the role of science in society serves as a foundational knowledge base for future citizens to critically analyze and evaluate science presented in the media Individuals with awareness of the context of science are better able to judge the validity of research because they are in a position to consider the social framework in which the research was conducted (Korpan et al 1997) In this regard, trade books may not be any better than text books, which analyses have revealed also underrepresent these concepts (Chiang-Soong and Yager 1993; Chiappetta et al 1993) Thus, the current analysis demonstrated a discrepancy between the goals of science literacy and the coverage found in trade books The emphasis on science facts was echoed by the large representation of trade books that contained established science For each of the science topics selected, the trade books scored high on science content but this was largely consisted of established scientific facts 246 Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 A small number of books discussed concepts that were cutting-edge or thought provoking to the reader The low percentage of books containing cutting-edge concepts is of concern, given that textbooks already tend to focus on established information (Goldman and Bisanz 2002; Norris and Phillips 2003) Why trade books neglect discussion of explanatory information and science concepts? Perhaps authors of trade books hold the belief that younger children are not developmentally ready to grasp causal information in science There is evidence, however, that detailed discussion of science concepts can support greater long-term understanding by strengthening causal connections (Newton et al 2002) There is a danger that trade books, which overemphasize the description of science concepts rather than provide cutting-edge or explanatory information, could influence children to view science as merely a collection of facts, as opposed to a process of inquiry, discovery, and experimentation Conclusion The results of our analyses are congruent with other studies of trade book content (e.g., Ford 2004, 2006) In these studies, the trade books examined did not convey adequate modeling of the elements of scientific literacy including science processes, the nature of science, and STS Despite positive aspects of using trade books, such as their ability to change students’ attitude and achievement (Lamartino 1995; Maria and Junge 1993), a major drawback of the literature for young children is that there is a large amount of variation in its representation of science It would appear then, that a majority of science trade books cover concepts that are similar to those described in textbooks Despite the abundance of established facts in trade books, reading about science concepts in a trade book format, as opposed to in a textbook, could still be advantageous Previous research has suggested that textbook coverage of scientific concepts is inadequate (Guzzetti et al 1995; Kesidou and Roseman 2002; Roseman et al 1999) That is, key concepts are often embedded within extraneous information and complicated language The opportunity to read science in multiple genres allows children the opportunity to blend together different accounts of the same information Furthermore, for those educators who subscribe to inquiry-based pedagogy in science classrooms, trade books might potentially be appropriate tools to introduce broader topics in a reader-friendly format, but not rely entirely on trade books as the single source of information The simpler formatting used in trade books can compensate for poor content coherence in textbooks, and provide a viable alternative for those with varied reading levels Based on the findings of this study, educators need to look beyond the face appeal of trade books when considering their use in the classroom Trade books may be high in entertainment value, but low in the essential elements of science that is needed to lay the foundations for a science literate public Thus, the use of trade books in an educational setting requires careful evaluation of content Before choosing trade books for students to read, teachers should first establish the goals of their lesson This includes the specific learning outcomes they are required to meet, and the elements of science literacy that can complement the desired goal Once this has been established, teachers should then identify books that address these learning goals in their content Based on our findings, we assert that the judicious inclusion of quality trade books, which focus on cutting-edge information and the role of science in society, can broaden children’s sense of science and complement textbook information Res Sci Educ (2009) 39:231–250 247 Acknowledgement This research was supported by funding from the Canadian Language and Literacy Research Network (CLLRNet) We thank Nicole Forgeron and Angela McPhee for their assistance with this research References American Association for the Advancement of Science (1990) Project 2061: Science for all Americans New York: Oxford University Press American Association for the Advancement of Science (1993) Benchmarks for science literacy New York: Oxford University Press Baker, L., & Saul, W (1994) Considering science and language arts connections: A study of teacher cognition Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31, 1023–1037 Bamford, R A., & Kristo, J V (1998) Choosing quality nonfiction literature: Examining aspects of accuracy and organization In R A Bamford, & J V Kristo (Eds.) 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