164 India Councils Act of 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms) Cambridge University Press, 1932; Majumdar, R C The History of the Freedom Movement in India Vol Calcutta: Firma K.L Mukhopadhyay, 1963; Nehru, Jawaharlal The Discovery of India Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1946 Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur India Councils Act of 1909 (MorleyMinto Reforms) During the late 19th century British-educated Indians began to demand a role in their government, which later developed into the independence movement In 1885 an Englishman founded the Indian National Congress, although most of its members were highcaste Hindus The congress met annually to promote the goal of greater participation of Indians in government By the early 20th century a radical wing had developed in the congress that was not content with the slow pace of reform They were energized by the partition of the huge province of Bengal into two in 1905: East Bengal (including Assam) with a Muslim majority, and West Bengal (including Bihar and Orissa) with a Hindu majority A storm of protest against the partition ensued and included an economic boycott of British goods and acts of terrorism The congress was split over this issue, and a radical wing split off to form the New Party The new viceroy, Lord Minto (1845– 1914), on the one hand acted to repress the unrest, while on the other he worked to enact reforms with the secretary of state for India of the newly elected Liberal government in Great Britain, John (later Lord) Morley (1838–1923) The partition of Bengal was a catalyst for Muslim political consciousness Since the decline and fall of the Muslim Mughal dynasty, Indian Muslims had fallen behind Hindus in attaining a modern education and adjusting to new conditions Unlike Hindus, Indian Muslims were encouraged by the formation of East Bengal Realizing that constitutional reforms were in the works and that they would be a minority in a representative government, Western-educated Muslims led by Aga Khan organized the All-India Muslim League in 1905 and lobbied Minto for a “fair share” for the Muslim community in any representative system Like the congress, the league also met in annual conventions to formulate goals In 1909 the British parliament passed the Indian Councils Act It increased membership of legisla- tive councils in both the central and provincial governments (all appointed up to then) to make elected members the majority in the provincial legislatures Importantly, educated men who paid a certain sum of taxes were allowed to vote for the first time in Indian history Some seats were reserved for Muslim candidates, and only Muslims could vote for them Moreover, the elected members were also empowered to question officials; to debate legislation, including the budget; and to introduce laws However, the viceroy and the governors still had total control and could veto any laws that were passed The first elections were held in 1910 and elected 135 Indian representatives, who took their seats at various legislatures throughout India This act and other measures gradually restored calm to India The act is important because it established representative responsible government as the goal for India and introduced the elective principle to a nonwhite possession of Great Britain Further reading: Dodwell, H H The Cambridge History of India Vol VI, The Indian Empire, 1858–1918 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1932; Wasti, Syed Razi Lord Minto and the Indian Nationalist Movement, 1905–1910 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964; Wolpert, Stanley Morley and India, 1906–1910 Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967 Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Indian National Congress (1885–1947) The Indian National Congress (INC) was a leader of the Indian freedom movement against British colonial rule One of the success stories of the nationalist struggle in Asia, the congress was established in 1885 A political consciousness was arising in the latter part of the 19th century among Indian intelligentsia, and various people emerged to raise their voices against foreign rule The sincere endeavor of Allan Octavian Hume (1829–1912), along with the efforts of Indian leaders, resulted in the emergence of the INC on December 25, 1885 From its first meeting, held in the city of Bombay (now Mumbai), the INC worked relentlessly to end alien rule in India In its initial phases the INC was very modest in its demands, such as expansion of legislative councils and an increase in governmental grants to indigenous industries It even pledged loy-