38 baroque tradition in Europe In Brazilian historiography and national culture, bandeirantes occupy a very important and highly ambiguous position—praised for their endurance and discoveries, and condemned for their brutalities and cruelties that were integral to Indian slaving in the backcountry By 1600, most residents of São Paulo (which at the time was a small settlement of only about 120 houses and 2,000 people) were Portuguese, Indian, and racially mixed mamelucos (the Portuguese equivalent of the Spanish term mestizo) The predominant language was Tupí Their city and homesteads vulnerable to attack, Paulistas initially launched bandeiras as a defensive measure against hostile natives By around 1600, bandeiras had transformed into offensive slave-raiding expeditions The indigenous inhabitants around São Paulo having all but disappeared by this time, victims to enslavement and diseases, the Paulistas found themselves chronically short of servile labor The bandeiras were their effort to remedy this chronic labor shortage Most bandeiras left no written record, though many others did, thanks in large part to Jesuit missionaries or foreigners who accompanied them through the backcountry and reported on their experiences As one Jesuit priest marveled, “One is astounded by the boldness and impertinence with which, at such great cost, men allow themselves to enter that great sertão for two, three, four or more years They go without God, without food, naked as the savages, and subject to all the persecutions and miseries in the world Men venture for two or three hundred leagues into the sertão, serving the devil with such amazing martyrdom, in order to trade or steal slaves.” A classic account is by the Jesuit priest Pedro Domingues of 1613, which described a journey of several thousand kilometers lasting 19 months Occasionally clashing with Spanish settlements emanating out from the Río de la Plata, the bandeirantes helped to define colonial Brazil’s southern boundaries As time went on, they also clashed repeatedly with the Jesuits, who saw their slave raiding as antithetical to their own goal of converting the natives to Christianity and saving souls This conflict between bandeirantes and Jesuits in colonial Brazil can be aptly compared to similar conflicts between encomenderos and religious missions in colonial Spanish America during this same period By around 1650, there occurred a broad shift among bandeiras from slave raiding to the search for precious metals By this time, African slaves were fulfilling the colony’s servile labor requirements, while the Jesuit missions had fortified their defenses, making Indian slaving more difficult Greatly extending geographic knowledge of the vast Brazilian interior, the bandeirantes have come to occupy a position within Brazilian national culture akin to the cowboys of the United States or the gauchos of Argentina, symbolizing the spirit of adventure, independence, and, ironically, freedom It is estimated that bandeirantes enslaved and caused the premature deaths of hundreds of thousands of Indians during the decades of their greatest activity See also encomienda in Spanish America; Jesuits in Asia; slave trade, Africa and the Further reading: Hemming, John Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians London: Papermac, 1978; Morse, Richard M., ed The Bandeirantes: The Historical Role of the Brazilian Pathfinders New York: Knopf, 1965 Michael J Schroeder baroque tradition in Europe “Baroque” describes both a period and the artistic style that dominated the 17th century The baroque style originated in Rome, Italy, c 1600, largely as an expression of Catholicism and the royal courts, and spread throughout Europe, lasting into the early 18th century Following the Counter Reformation in the 16th century, the Roman Catholic Church, the main patron of the arts in Europe, required new forms of art in ecclesiastical contexts to educate the masses and to strengthen the church’s spiritual and political positions Baroque painting not only includes portraits of saints and the Virgin, but also encompasses numerous styles and diverse themes—large-scale religious works with monumental figures that clearly convey a narrative, which were intended to convince worshipers to adhere to the church’s doctrines; heroic mythological and allegorical cycles, designed to engage the intellect of the viewer and glorify royalty; portraiture; and still life Seventeenth-century painting comprises five stylistic categories Caravaggio (1571–1610), who stressed painting from the model and the use of chiaroscuro, the strong contrast of shade and light, helped to spread naturalism from Rome into Italy, Spain, and the Netherlands Classicism, represented by Annibale Carracci (1560–1609) and his school, drew from Renaissance and Venetian sources to create works of great drama, vitality, and grandeur that appealed to the senses Academic classicism, or the Louis XIV style, developed in France through the Royal Academy Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) popularized the later high baroque style,