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Syracuse law codes This revival did not last long, however After about 100 years the Ur III dynasty fell in 2004 b.c.e., eventually to be replaced by the Babylonians Sumer left a lasting impression on the cultures that followed Some of the inventions the Sumerians contributed include writing, the city-state, the wheel, legal documents, and schools Although the language of Sumer is not related to any other known language, it had some influence on Akkadian, the Semitic language that eventually became the dominant language of the ancient Near East The influence of Sumerian culture, however, continued through the later periods of the Babylonians and the Assyrians in their mythology and historiography See also Assyria; Babylon, early period; cuneiform; Fertile Crescent; Greek city-states; scribes Further reading: Snell, Daniel C Life in the Ancient Near East, 3100–332 B.C.E New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997; Van De Mieroop, Marc A History of the Ancient Near East ca 3000–323 BC Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004 Dewayne Bryant Sunzi (Sun Tzu) (6th century b.c.e.) Chinese general and author Sunzi means “Master Sun” in Chinese He was also known as Sun Bin (Pin) or Sun the Cripple because his feet were amputated as punishment for some crime He was the putative author of a book titled Sunzi Bingfa (Suntzu ping-fa), or the Art of War of Sunzi, which analyzed warfare and strategy He lived toward the end of the sixth century b.c.e and led the army of one of China’s warring states to victory In time Sun became almost a legend Several new groups of men gained prominence during the Warring States period (487–221 b.c.e.), when warfare among the Chinese states became intense and large scale One group was the diplomats, who could negotiate successfully Another group was the professional warriors, because valor in battle provided one avenue of upward mobility for the officers and exemption from taxes and labor services and rewards for common soldiers Strategists and tacticians were also in demand; Sunzi belonged to this group The Sunzi Bingfa opens thus: “The art of war is of vital importance to the state It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin Hence under no circumstances can it be neglected.” The work consists of 13 chapters: Laying Plans, On Waging War, The Sheathed Sword, Tactics, Energy, Weak Points and 447 Strong, Variation of Tactic, The Army on the March, Terrain, The Nine Situations, Attack by Fire, and The Use of Spies Each chapter is short and succinct For example, chapter 3, “The Sheathed Sword,” opens this way: “To fight and conquer in all your battles is not supreme excellence; supreme excellence consists in breaking the enemy’s resistance without fighting In the practical art of war, the best thing of all is to take the enemy’s country whole and intact; to shatter and destroy it is not so good So, too, it is better to capture an army entire than to destroy it Thus the highest form of generalship is to balk the enemy’s plans; the next best is to prevent the junction of the enemy’s forces; the next in order is to attack the enemy’s army in the field; and the worst policy of all is to besiege walled cities.” The Sunzi Bingfa has been an influential book for Chinese generals since the fourth century b.c.e It was first translated into French in 1782 and was translated into English in 1905 It has been used as a textbook in all Western military academies since the early 20th century and, more recently, in business schools because the strategies it offers are applicable to many endeavors See also Hundred Schools of Philosophy; Zhou (Chou) dynasty Further reading: Griffith, Samuel G Sun Tzu: The Art of War Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963; Kierman, Frank A., Jr., and John K Fairbank, eds Chinese Ways in Wafare Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974; Sun Tzu The Art of War Edited by James Clavell New York: Dell Publishing, 1983 Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur Susa See Persepolis, Susa, and Ecbatana Syracuse In 421 b.c.e., with the establishment of the Peace of Nikias, Athens and Sparta managed to set a provisory truce on the Peloponnesian War (431–404 b.c.e.) However, a period of mutual suspicions and instability followed, which created new conflicts for both poleis and their allies In the winter of 415 b.c.e the Sicilian city of Segesta decided to ask for Athenian support against their neighbor Selinus, which was helped by Syracusan forces According to Thucydides (in his History of the Peloponnesian War), Athens agreed to organize and send 60 ships to the island under the joint command
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