Encyclopedia of world history (facts on file library of world history) 7 volume set ( PDFDrive ) 1388

178 indentured servitude in colonial America forces on February 21, 1543 In what became known as the Battle of Wayna Daga, a Portuguese musketeer who was determined to avenge the death of da Gama and his comrades killed Ahmed, even though it cost him his own life Once Ahmed was dead, his troops lost the will to continue the jihad As a result of the Battle of Wayna Daga and Ahmed’s death, Galawdewos was able to restore the Ethiopian Empire The Ethiopian Christians celebrated their restoration to power by holding ceremonies in which they publicy renounced the Muslim faith and reembraced Christianity Despite this success, Galawdewos’s reign was cut short when he was killed in one of the frequent raids conducted by Bati Del Wambara, Ahmed’s widow, who was determined to avenge her husband’s death During the years of Muslim occupation, much of Ethiopia had been destroyed In the 21st century, Ethiopian churches still bear the scars of the Muslim attacks Despite these scars, Ethiopia has survived as an African nation with a considerable Christian presence Currently, between 35 and 40 percent of the Ethiopian population belong to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, and between 45 and 50 percent embrace the Muslim faith Further reading: Fage, J D A History of Africa London: Hutchinson, 1988; Henze, Paul B Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia New York: Palgrave, 2000; Iliffe, John Africans: The History of a Continent New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995; Munro-Hays, Stuart, and Richard Pankhurst Ethiopia Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 1995; Ogot, B A., ed General History of Africa, Volume Five: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999 Elizabeth Purdy indentured servitude in colonial America This compulsory work system was an important form of labor in colonial America, especially in 17th century Chesapeake In exchange for several years of labor, English men and women received passage to America and opportunity A cruel life, servitude was ultimately replaced by African slavery Indentured servitude was an American invention with English roots The idea of serving for a period of years had long been a part of apprenticeships; after 1563, English law had required nearly all wage laborers to contract by the year In both cases, masters assumed nearly total control over their workers: They could set them to a variety of tasks and punish them physically but also had to feed and house them Apprentices and servants were typically young and unmarried people seeking money to establish their own households A large percentage of English men and women, perhaps a majority, spent a portion of their youth in service England’s decision to plant colonies in the New World precipitated the invention of indentured servitude In 1584, Richard Hakluyt advocated colonization as a solution to England’s “valiant youths, rusting and hurtful by lack of employment” and a number of young laborers accompanied the first settlers to Jamestown in 1607 However, most colonists expected that Native Americans would work for them and it was only after attempts to enslave the Powhatan Indians failed that the Virginia Company seriously looked to England for workers In 1616, the company instituted the headright system by which colonists received 50 acres of land for every servant imported That same year, tobacco was introduced to Virginia and the demand for workers increased dramatically In the 17th century, 90,000 of the 120,000 English emigrants to Virginia and Maryland were indentured servants Most were between the ages of 20 and 24, and men outnumbered women by six to one Most came from desperately poor backgrounds and had no other opportunities Before leaving England, a servant signed (usually with an X) a contract Two copies of the contract were written on the same sheet of paper and then cut apart, leaving a rough or indented edge, hence “indentured” servitude The servant received one copy and the other was sold in America Typically a servant agreed to serve between four and seven years for passage to America When the contract ended, a servant received “freedom dues”: clothes, tools, food, and for the first half of the 17th century, 50 acres of land Life as an indentured servant was hard and cruel “Am toiling almost day and night, very often in the horse’s drudgery,” wrote Elizabeth Sprigs “Scare any thing but Indian corn and salt to eat . . . almost naked no shoes nor stockings to wear.” In addition to inadequate food and clothing, beatings were common In 1624, Elizabeth Abbott died at the hands of her master, leaving a corpse “full of sores and holes very dangerously raunckled and putrified above her wa[i]st and upon her hips and thighs.” In the case of Abbott and others, Chesapeake courts habitually sided with the masters Masters were allowed to sell their servants’ contracts, practically reducing the workers to chattel Servants