322 Qing (Ch’ing) dynasty, rise and zenith Ming throne and proclaimed the Qing as a national successor dynasty to the Ming He won over many people in northern China by burying the last Ming emperor and empress with honor, restoring order, and keeping most of the Ming institutions and officials in place Ming loyalists resisted in southern China and warfare continued until 1683, when Taiwan, the last Ming loyalist bastion, was captured Dorgon died in 1651 and his nephew the emperor Shunzi (Shun-chih, r 1644–61) continued his policies but had little impact because of the brevity of his reign Then came three great emperors: Kangxi (K’ang-hsi, r 1662–1722), Yongzheng (Yung-Cheng, r 1723– 35), and Qianlong (Ch’ien-lung, r 1736–1796) These three reigns totaled 134 years, during which traditional Chinese culture enjoyed its last great flowering and Chinese power attained great heights Capable rulers Kangxi was seven when he ascended an as yet insecure throne A remarkably intelligent, ambitious, and hardworking boy, he freed himself from the tutelage of his regents at age 13 and began his personal rule, which was noted for its success in war and peace Frugal in personal habits and in administration he repeatedly reduced taxes and permanently fixed them at a low level He also took a personal interest in agricultural improvements, introducing early ripening strains of rice to promote food production He advocated vaccination against smallpox, a dreaded childhood disease that he had recovered from, and quinine (called Jesuit bark) against malaria He also took several tours of inspection to be personally acquainted with his realm He worked long hours personally reading and responding to reports and memorials of officials and conscientiously fasting before reviewing capital cases, showing respect for life and the awesome responsibilities that were vested in him He finished the work of suppressing Ming loyalist revolts and the formidable revolt of the Three Feudatories He campaigned against the Mongols and negotiated a treaty with Russia that defined part of the borders between the two empires and put part of Outer Mongolia under Qing control He also installed a friendly cleric as the Seventh Dalai Lama, thus extending Qing authority over Tibet Although personally friendly with Jesuit missionaries, some of whom were his teachers and employees, he rejected the papacy’s attempt to claim authority over Chinese Catholics and definition of what rites Chinese Catholics should follow The defeat of the Jesuits’ position on Chinese rites by their opponents in the Catholic curia ended over a century of cultural exchange between China and Europe Kangxi was both a keen student and a patron of the arts and learning He sponsored numerous projects that included the compiling of a multivolume history of the Ming dynasty, a comprehensive dictionary, and other publications His court was filled with literary men and artists Although his last years were clouded with problems of finding a worthy successor among his many sons, Kangxi’s long reign ended with the Qing dynasty firmly established To many of his subjects, he approached the ideal ruler Emperor Yongzheng (r 1723–1735) was Kangxi’s fourth son and his successor Because he was already 44 when he ascended the throne, his reign was a short one Like his father, Yongzheng was able, conscientious, and hardworking He focused on making his government efficient by weeding out incompetence and corruption and making all officials accountable The civil service, recruited on merit through exams, enjoyed high morale under his reign He concentrated military power in his own hands and personally commanded all the Manchu banner units, sidelining the Manchu tribal and clan chiefs and imperial princes Although he did not personally command campaigns, Yongzheng continued to consolidate his empire’s borders with expeditions against the Mongol tribes that had not submitted, and by a second treaty with Russia that completed the drawing of borders between the two empires Yongzheng’s legacy was a more efficient and tightly controlled empire than the one he inherited and one that was institutionally stronger Yongzheng was followed on the throne by his fourth son, then aged 24 and well prepared for his role, who reigned as Emperor Qianlong, a keen student of history His paragons were Taizong (T’ai-tsung, r 627–47, statesman and general) and his grandfather Kangxi, and he abdicated in 1796 so that his reign would not be longer than that of his revered grandfather Qianlong excelled in war, personally leading some campaigns Under him Qing arms finally reduced the troublesome Olod Mongols and Turkic tribes, extending Chinese control into Central Asia as had the great Han, Tang (T’ang), and Yuan (Mongol dynasty) dynasties Peace and prosperity prevailed, education and culture flourished, and the civil service exams recruited capable men to serve the government As had his grandfather, Qianlong made numerous tours of inspection throughout his realm, and as had both his predecessors, he lavishly patronized the arts, including many Jesuit artists and architects who gathered at his