xviii Chronology establishes a single authoritative version of the Qur’an and presides over the rapid expansion of the Muslim state Within 100 years the Arab/Muslim state would stretch from the Indus River in the east to Morocco in North Africa and Spain in the west 636 C.E Battle of Yarmuk The Arab/Muslim forces decisively defeat the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Yarmuk and rapidly expand their new empire 638 C.E Arab Forces Take Jerusalem Having taken Damascus, Arab/Muslim forces take Jerusalem, the third most holy city in Islam, but grant religious freedom to “people of the book,” Jews and Christians 642 C.E Arab Conquest of Egypt Arab forces under the command of Amir ibn al-As attack Egypt and in 642 Egypt surrenders 644 C.E Omar I Assassinated While at prayers in the mosque at Medina, Omar is assassinated by a Persian slave; Uthman, from the powerful Umayyad family, is chosen as the third caliph 645 C.E Fujiwara Clan This clan receives its name and rises to dominate Japan under the emperor as a result of a coup d’état 645 C.E Taika Reform Great political and economic changes that are made in Japan according to the Chinese model 650 C.E Fall of Teotihuacán Partial destruction and abandonment of Classic-era city-state of Teotihuacán in the Basin of Mexico 656 C.E Ali Selected as the Fourth Caliph and the Battle of the Camel Following Uthman’s assassination by rebels, Ali, the prophet Muhammad’s son-in-law, is selected caliph However, the succession is opposed by the Umayyads and A’isha, the Prophet’s favorite wife, who astride a camel leads forces against Ali at what becomes known as the Battle of the Camel, but Ali’s supporters win 657 C.E Battle of Siffin At the Battle of Siffin, Muaw’iya of the Umayyad family challenges Ali’s supremacy and wins In 661, Ali is assassinated by opponents, thereby ending the age of the “rightly guided” caliphs 660 C.E Kingdom of Silla (Korea) The kingdom of Silla, on the Korean Peninsula, conquers the Paekche and Koguryo Kingdoms They bring about the first unification of the Korean Peninsula 661 C.E Umayyad Caliphate Established Muaw’iya establishes the Umayyad Caliphate with its capital at Damascus He establishes a centralized empire that incorporates many institutions and artistic forms from the older Byzantine Empire 673–678 C.E Arab Forces Fail to Capture Constantinople Arab forces besiege Constantinople The siege fails due to both the strength of the city walls and a new invention: “the Greek Fire” that caused havoc among the Arab fleet In 678, a 30-year peace treaty is negotiated 680 C.E Battle of Kerbala At Kerbala, in present-day Iraq, supporters of the Umayyad Caliphate kill Ali’s son Husayn and his supporters This marks the split between the Sunni Muslims and Shi’i Muslims who believe that the line of leadership for the Muslim community should follow through Ali and the Prophet’s family; Husayn becomes a martyr to the Shi’i community 680–1018 C.E First Bulgarian Empire The first Bulgarian Empire is created when the Bulgars defeat the Byzantines 685 C.E Caliph Abd al-Malik Under Abd al-Malik I, reigned 685–705, Arabic becomes the major language of the Umayyad Empire and the first Arab/Muslim coins are minted at Damascus; his further centralization of the empire causes internal disputes 690–705 C.E Empress Wu of China Wu Hou becomes the first female ruler of China after serving as regent upon her husband’s death 700 C.E Chinese Invent Gunpowder The Chinese combine saltpeter, sulfur, and carbon to create gunpowder It is initially used for fireworks