Leopold II 235 and Noble, 1994; Showalter, Dennis The Wars of German Unification London: A Hodder Arnold Publication, 2004 John F Murphy, Jr Leo XIII (1810–1903) Roman Catholic pope Pope Leo XIII was born Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi on March 2, 1810, in Carpineto and died on July 20, 1903, in Rome Young Raffaele was sent at age eight to study at the Jesuit school at Viterbo, where he attained a doctorate of theology in 1832 and was ordained a priest on December 31, 1837 In January 1843 he was appointed papal nuncio (diplomat) to Brussells, Belgium, and elevated to archbishop of Damiata, Belgium, on February 19, 1843 He worked with the Belgium royalty to establish Catholic schools in Belgium, a controversial move for both parties Later, Raffaele was made bishop of Perugia He was made a cardinal by Pope Pius IX, appointed camerlengo (head of the papal household) in August 1877, and then elected pope in 1878 As pope, he was active in diplomatic circles by courting relationships with France, Germany, Russia, the United States, and the nations of South America Pope Leo XIII strained relations between the Holy See and Great Britain by restoring the Scottish hierarchy of the church, declaring all Anglican ordinations invalid, and elevating John Henry Newman, a convert from Anglicanism, to the cardinalate Within the church, he resolved the schism with the Armenian Church and strengthened the Ruthenian Church He established national colleges within Vatican City, expanded the holdings and services of the Vatican library and secret archives, and built the Vatican Observatory He wrote encyclicals against Americanism, Freemasonry, and socialism, and for devotions to the rosary and the Sacred Heart of Jesus His landmark encyclical Rerum novarum set out Catholic principles on the economic relationship between labor and capital Further reading: Duffy, Eamon Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002; Pham, John-Peter Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession New York: Oxford University Press, 2004; Reardon, Wendy J The Deaths of the Popes: Comprehensive Accounts, Including Funerals, Leo XIII was active in diplomatic circles, courting relationships with western Europe, Russia, and the United States Burial Places, and Epitaphs Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2004 James Russell Leopold II (1835–1909) king of Belgium Upon his accession in 1865, Leopold decided Belgium should be beautiful, rich, secure, and more powerful