26 Augsburg, Peace of transformed into granular sugar—the Atlantic islands were crucial in the development of the technological know-how necessary for the explosion of sugar production in the Caribbean and Brazil in the 16th century and after By the late 1450s, sugar production on Madeira exceeded 70,000 kilograms, most exported to England and the Mediterranean, deepening markets and solidifying the financial and commercial networks that would later play a crucial role in the development of plantation-based export production in the Americas The administrative infrastructure that the Portuguese developed to rule Madeira, the Azores, and the Cape Verde Islands, based on hereditary “donatary captaincies,” were likewise transferred wholesale to Brazil during the first half-century of its colonization Plantation-based sugar production on Madeira in particular, based on both slave and free-wage labor, also whetted the European appetite for this luxury commodity, deepening demand just on the eve of the encounter with the Americas In addition both before and after sugar production had become established in the Americas, the Atlantic islands served as important way stations for the African slave trade and for long-distance trade with Asia See also Africa, Portuguese in; Ferdinand V and isabella I of Spain; slave trade, Africa and the; sugarcane plantations in the Americas Further reading: Diffie, Bailey W., and George D Winius Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580 Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977; FernándezArmesto, Felipe Ferdinand and Isabella New York: Dorset Press, 1991; Mintz, Sidney W Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History New York: Viking, 1985 Michael J Schroeder Augsburg, Peace of The Peace of Augsburg refers to a settlement between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Lutheran princes that accorded Lutheran churches legal status in Germany This settlement resolved the conflict on a state level but did not resolve any of the theological issues in the Reformation The period between 1546 and 1555 was one of substantial warfare in Europe, characterized mostly by smaller battles, opportunistic in nature, with a few more major conflicts The main actors up to this time had been Charles V, the Emperor; Francis I, king of France; Pope Paul III; and various princes in Germany who had made an association for mutual defense together in what was called the Schmalkaldic League (named after the town of Schmalkalden in central Germany) Charles V was frustrated by the religious conflict tearing apart his Empire He pressured the pope to resolve the differences, resulting in the Council of Trent, which began in 1545 Charles V wanted the council to include the Protestant leaders, but this did not happen At the same time, Charles was maneuvering to gain greater control over the German princes, using military pressure and negotiations His hope was to break apart the Schmalkaldic League by diplomacy (and intrigue), but if that failed, to drive a wedge through Germany with his armies and break up the league by military means This was accomplished in a series of battles beginning in later 1546 and concluding in April 23, 1547, with the defeat of the league forces in Mühlberg and the subsequent imprisonment of a key leader, the landgrave, Philip of Hesse Charles’s main ally in the battles was the Elector Maurice of Saxony, an opportunist with Lutheran leanings While Charles V accomplished his goal of gaining political and military control over Germany, Lutheranism was to prove impossible to eradicate In April 1548, in an edict published in Augsburg (called the Augsburg Interim), Charles mandated restoration of the Roman Catholic Mass and other practices, allowing only two concessions to the Lutherans: married clergy and the use of both bread and wine in Communion Later that year, the Lutheran Philip Melancthon was directed by Charles and Maurice to make certain alterations to the document in the hopes of making it more acceptable to the other Lutheran princes, who had refused to support the Augsburg Interim This edict was published as the Leipzig Interim Neither edict succeeded in bringing uniformity of church practice back to Germany The Interim failed to gain support from the populace of Germany and Melancthon found himself reproached by his fellow Lutherans for his part in the Leipzig Interim The only real effect of the Interim was the ability of those who were still Roman Catholics to observe their faith in the Lutheran territories The balance of power that allowed Charles V to gain control over Germany in 1547–48 soon changed Charles was forced to give Maurice of Saxony a great deal of control over Germany in exchange for his continuing military support Charles had negotiated a peace settlement with Francis I, king of France, in 1544, but Francis died in 1547 and was succeeded by