402 Tughlaq dynasty princes formed peace movements centered on the cult of local saints and shrines containing relics Prelates organized peace militia that protected monastic holdings and persecuted heretical groups At the Synod of Arles in 1041, clerics, especially Cluniac monks, banned the shedding of Christian blood and suggested that Christians could not fight other Christians from Thursday to Monday morning (in commemoration of Christ’s passion), and important feast days such as Lent Christian leaders encouraged military elites to divert their aggression toward the non-Christian, thus preparing a crusading spirit, which would manifest itself in the First Crusade in 1095 In 1095 Pope Urban II authorized the war against Muslims in the Holy Land on the basis that God would approve such noble efforts Church leaders also encouraged powerful lords to centralize their government, redirecting the military power of the knights against the infidel The most powerful lords were the kings, who by the 12th century began to enforce their own programs of national peace, monopolizing violence against infidels and heretics The struggle for power among the nobility resulted in new feudal relationships as new families came to prominence Noble families fortified their holdings by establishing primogeniture With the consolidation of principalities and kingdoms and the stabilization of society by means of the implementation of the Peace and Truce of God, Europe became imperialistic and developed colonial projects The European economy expanded because of higher agricultural yields, commercial development, demographic growth, the establishment of universities, and the implementation of reform programs that converged with the rise of the papal monarchy, the enforcement of disciplinary mechanisms, and the execution of policies of conquest See also Crusades; feudalism: Europe; heresies, pre-Reformation Further reading: Head, Thomas, and Richard Landes, eds The Peace of God: Social Violence and Religious Response in France around the Year 1000 Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992; Moore, R I The Formation of a Persecuting Society: Power and Deviance in Western Europe, 950–1250 New York: Blackwell, 1987; Tellenbach, Gerd The Church in Western Europe from the Tenth to the Early Twelfth Century Trans by Timothy Reuter Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993 Aurelio Espinosa Tughlaq dynasty The Tughlaq dynasty was one of the dynasties ruling India collectively referred to as the Delhi Sultanate Most historians mark the years of Tughlaq dynasty from 1321 to 1414 The Tughluq family was a Muslim clan that originated in Turkey A number of alliances with Turks, Afghans, and other Asian Muslims characterized most of the Tughluq rule In 1320 the last ruler of the Khilji dynasty, Nasir-udDin Khusro, confronted the governor of Punjab, Ghazi Malik, in a battle near Delhi Khusro, a Hindu who had converted to Islam, began a purge of Muslim military officers while appointing Hindus in their place This created a great deal of unrest throughout India Ghazi Malik and his forces were victorious in the battle and he proclaimed himself king of Delhi Malik followed with an attempt to locate a rightful successor to the Khalji dynasty A successor could not be found and sentiment grew for Malik to follow Khusro Soon after, Ghazi Malik changed his name to Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq Ghazi Malik’s ascension to power was the beginning of the Tughlaq dynasty Upon taking power, Tughluq commenced a policy of exterminating the former allies of Khusro In addition, Tughluq introduced a series of administrative reforms in order to restore order throughout the kingdom In 1325 Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq viewed a parade of elephants captured during the conquest of Bengal while sitting in a specially constructed pavilion The elephants caused the viewing pavilion to collapse, causing the death of both Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq and his son, Prince Mahmud Khan Some experts suggest that the incident was not an accident, but a plot to end Ghiyas-ud-Din’s regime Another son of Ghiyas-ud-Din, Muhammad bin Tughluq, followed as ruler Muhammad introduced a number of experimental reforms Most notably Muhammad transferred the capital and all government officials, army, servants, and a number of citizens from Delhi to Daulatbad In addition Muhammad allowed the production of copper coinage, which, ultimately, led to severe devaluation of local currencies Muhammad bin Tughluq’s reign included a number of internal revolts as well as incursions from Mongol invaders The most significant development during Muhammad’s rule was the 1328 invasion by Mongols In 1350 Muhammad died and was followed by his cousin Firuz Tughlaq Firuz Tughlaq assumed the role of sultan in 1351 Militarily, his reign resulted in a loss of territory while his