Islam: science and technology in the golden age and Arabic during the Umayyad period in the eighth century; they also studied Aristotelian logic, metaphysics, and medical and scientific works Empowered by the new Islamic state and fueled by the quest for knowledge that was encouraged by many Qur’anic verses and Hadiths advocating the pursuit of knowledge, Caliphs Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma’mun sponsored envoys to Byzantine and Christian authorities in Europe to gain access to Greek manuscripts, hitherto kept in basements and attics of churches and monasteries Countless manuscripts, especially in Greek, were collected and stored at Bayt al-Hikmah Early scholars went to Baghdad from diverse areas and backgrounds and enjoyed considerable respect and religious tolerance from their Muslim colleagues Caliph al-Ma’mun encouraged the translation of Greek and other texts into Arabic The caliph surrounded himself with learned men, legal experts, rationalist theologians, lexicographers, and linguists Yuhanna bin Masawayh (d 857) and his student Hunayn ibn Ishaq (d 874) and a host of others headed the program at Bayt al-Hikmah Works of Greek philosophers such as Porphyry, Aristotle, Galen, and Hippocrates were translated to Syriac and then to Arabic The bulk of these materials were exhaustively analyzed and consequently codified and reintroduced with a particular Islamic Arabic identity In 751 the Arabs learned the technology of papermaking from the Chinese; the first paper mill was established in Baghdad around 793 The knowledge soon spread to Jerusalem, Egypt, and the Andalus in Spain, which was instrumental in transmitting the technology to Europe Bayt al-Hikmah developed a vast library and a systematic program of translation and study For the next 300 years, Baghdad remained a center of knowledge Córdoba in Spain was an equally active scientific center SCIENCE AND MEDICINE Islamic scholars expanded on the works of Greek physicians such as Galen Al-Razi (Rhazes, d 925) was an alchemist, physician, and clinician who wrote the first medical description of smallpox and measles; he combined psychological methods with physiological explanations He also developed the discipline of pharmacology, found treatment for kidney stones, and used alcohol as an antiseptic In his medical encyclopedia he included 50 contraceptive methods for women The Latin version of his work was published and used as a text in Milan, Venice, and Basle Ibn Sina (Avicenna) was a philosopher, poet, and physician who wrote a vast canon of medicine Ibn Sina’s writing was held in high 209 repute in Europe and was appreciated by Saint Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon In Spain, Ibn al-Khatib (Ibn al-Jatib, d 1375) of Granada composed a treatise on the theory of infection Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar, d 1162) of Seville was another prominent physician Al-Zahraw (Alzahravius, d 1013), a famous surgeon, left the first descriptive account of hemophilia Ibn al-Nafis (d 1288) was the first to describe the anatomy of the pulmonary vessels; his medical writing was translated to Latin Ibn al-Haytham alKhazin (Alhazen, d 1039) wrote The Book of Optics, in which he gave a detailed treatment of the anatomy of the eye and correctly deduced that the eye receives light from the object perceived, thereby laying the foundation for modern photography PHARMACOLOGY In the field of therapeutics, Yuhanna bin Masawayh (d 857) started a scientific and systematic method in Baghdad Hunayn outlined methods for confirming pharmacological effectiveness of drugs by experimenting with them on humans He also emphasized the importance of prognosis and diagnosis of diseases Other famous names in this field were al-Biruni and Ibn Butlan Pharmacies were open in towns and cities and were regulated by the government Much of the repertoire of modern pharmaceutical and chemical terminology derives from Arabic, including alchemy, alkali, alcohol, elixir, saffron, zenith, and zero Famous Arab scientists in this field include Ibn al-Bitar (d 1248), who was born in Malaga, worked in Damascus, and served as chief inspector of pharmacies in Egypt Arab scientists introduced Greek medicine to India and Central Asia in the ninth century and that knowledge flourished under dynasties following the Mongol invasion through the 17th century Islamic medical practice transformed the theological and superstitious and talismanic rituals inherited from medieval culture to methodical hospitals equipped with educated and certified physicians Hospitals in Baghdad, Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo, and Córdoba were equipped with pharmacies and libraries; they incorporated innovations such as fountains to cool the air, storytelling to ease pain, and the sound of music to treat mental illness Throughout the Islamic world mental institutions were built and were equipped with baths, drugs, music therapy, and occupational therapy APPLIED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY The wealth of knowledge and scientific achievement spread to different centers in the Islamic world and