Pius IX stipulated time These privileges were soon extended to England, France, the Netherlands, and Russia in similar agreements The government was severely criticized for allowing Japan to be humiliated by the Western powers Critics advocated a stronger leadership loyal to the emperor and committed to repel Western encroachments A slogan, “Honor the emperor, expel the barbarian,” became a popular rallying cry Two feudal lords of Choshu and Satsuma especially denounced the Tokugawa Shogunate as too weak to handle the problems afflicting Japan and led the movement to change Japan In 1868 these two regional lords, who had undertaken to modernize their armies, led a successful uprising that captured Edo, seat of the shogun It ended the Tokugawa Shogunate and resulted in the Meiji Restoration Further reading: Beasley, William Japan Encounters the Barbarians: Japanese Travellers in America and Europe New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995; ——— The Rise of Modern Japan New York: St Martin’s Press, 1990; Hane Mikiso Modern Japan: A Historical Survey Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992; Murphey, Rhoads East Asia: A New History Upper Saddle River, NJ: Longman, 1997; Walworth, Arthur Black Ships off Japan: The Story of Commodore Perry’s Expedition North Haven, CT: Archon Books, 1966 327 Catholic clergy and a general feeling of anti-Catholicism throughout the continent His lifelong devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary compelled him to circulate letters to the world’s bishops in regard to the subject of her immaculate conception On December 8, 1854, he promulgated the Marian dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin He convoked the Vatican I Council, which declared the dogma of papal infallibility that establishes that the pope, when speaking on matters of faith and morals, is infallible in his teachings At 32 years, his pontificate is the longest in history He was beatified on September 3, 2000, by Pope John Paul II Further reading: Chadwick, Owen A History of the Popes, 1830–1914 Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003; Duffy, Eamon Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002; Maxwell-Stuart, P G Chronicles of the Popes: A Reign-by-Reign Record of the Papacy from St Peter to the Present New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997; Pham, John-Peter Heirs of the Fisherman: Behind the Scenes of Papal Death and Succession New York: Oxford University Press, 2004; Reardon, Wendy J The Deaths of the Popes: Comprehensive Brian de Ruiter Pius IX (1792–1878) pope Pope Pius IX was born Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti at Sinigaglia on May 13, 1792, and died in Rome on February 7, 1878 As a young man, he desired to be a member of the papal noble guard, but was refused admission because he suffered from epilepsy He instead studied for the priesthood and was ordained a priest in 1819 and archbishop of Spoleto in 1827 He was moved to the diocese of Imola and made a cardinal in 1840 Mastai-Ferretti was elected pope on June 16, 1846 He had many domestic challenges in Italy that occupied his early papacy King Victor Emmanuel II defeated the papal army in 1860 and 10 years later seized Rome and made it the capital city of a united Italy Problems with most of the nations of Europe compelled Pius IX to use diplomacy to fight against the expulsion of Pope Pius IX convened the Vatican I Council and was the first to declare the dogma of papal infallibility