282 Manley, Michael glasses themselves Sunday services with a sympathetic preacher, books, games, tournaments, plays, concerts, and gardening provided some relief Beginning in the early 1980s, Mandela sought to bring the government and the ANC to the point of talks In March 1982 Mandela was transferred off Robben Island, and in 1988 he was relocated to a cottage within Victor Verster prison, in the town of Paarl, northeast of Cape Town South African president F W de Klerk began to dismantle apartheid He seemed prepared to negotiate with Mandela, but often sought to secure his own power through the guise of equality On February 3, 1990, Mandela was released and greeted by a great crowd in Cape Town He challenged the people to bring the government to the negotiating table After his release Mandela knew that his dream of a simple family life would again be sacrificed as he worked for a new South Africa (His first marriage, to Evelyn, had ended in 1955 when she became more interested in the Jehovah’s Witnesses than in politics.) In 1992 Mandela and Winnie separated Democratic elections were held in 1994 Mandela was elected president for a five-year term and immediately embarked upon an ambitious program of reconstruction, which remained the struggle for South Africans into the 21st century Further reading: Asmal, Kader, David Chidester, and Wilmot James, eds Nelson Mandela in His Own Words: From Freedom to the Future London: Little, Brown, 2003; Drummond, Allan Nelson Mandela Mentone, Vic.: Green Barrow Publishing, 2004; Guiloineau, Jean Nelson Mandela: The Early Life of Rolihlahla Mandiba Berkeley, CA: Atlantic Books, 2002; Mandela, Nelson Long Walk to Freedom Abacus, 1994; Nelson Mandela Foundation A Prisoner in the Garden: Opening Nelson Mandela’s Prison Archive Camberwell, Vic.: Penguin, 2005 Julia Pitman Manley, Michael (1924–1997) Jamaican political leader A leading spokesperson for Third World socialist movements and social justice for the world’s downtrodden and underprivileged, Michael Norman Manley dominated Jamaican politics from the time of his father’s death in 1969 until his retirement from politics in 1992 Serving three terms as prime minister (1972–76, 1976–80, and 1989–92), he headed Jamaica’s People’s National Party (PNP), founded in 1938 by his father, Norman Manley, which led the drive for Jamaican independence from Great Britain, achieved in 1962 Likened in his impact on global affairs to Indira Gandhi of India, Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and other prominent Third World figures of the cold war era, Manley was born in Kingston, Jamaica on December 10, 1924 His Jamaican-born black father, an Oxford-trained attorney, was a leading figure in the island’s political life from the 1930s until his death; his England-born white mother, Edna Swithenbank Manley, was a highly regarded artist and sculptor Despite his privileged background, which he readily acknowledged, in 1942 at age 18 Manley enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force, serving in the European theater but seeing no combat After the war he attended the London School of Economics, becoming a protégé of prominent British socialist Harold Laski Returning to Jamaica, in the early 1950s he became involved in the country’s burgeoning trade union movement; in 1962 he was appointed to a Senate seat in the newly independent nation-state and became vice president of the PNP Described as “tall, handsome, charismatic, and a spellbinding orator,” Manley promoted a pragmatic left-socialist democratic populism that resonated among large sectors of the Jamaican electorate Determined to improve the living conditions of his country’s poor majority and to enhance Jamaica’s standing vis-à-vis the more advanced industrial world, during his first term as prime minister he increased the state’s role in the country’s bauxite industry, the country’s principal export commodity and a major source of foreign exchange He also instituted a range of leftpopulist policies in the arenas of health, education, and unemployment A shrewd politician, he cast himself as an authentic expression of the needs and aspirations of Jamaica’s poor and dispossessed, allying himself with the religio-nationalist Rastafarian movement and integrating reggae music and other forms of AfroCaribbean artistic expression into his political repertoire After his 1980 electoral defeat by Conservative E P G Seaga, and in the context of the neoliberalism of the Reagan-Thatcher years, Manley recast his policies during his third and final term in office (1989–92), privatizing some industries, cutting government spending, and pursuing more orthodox monetary, trade, and investment policies, while never relinquishing his rhetorical or practical commitment to improving the living standards of the majority Further reading: Levi, Darrell E Michael Manley: The Making of a Leader London: A Deutsch, 1989; Meeks, Brian