Charles II The Scottish invasion forced Charles to convene Parliament again in November 1640 Parliament, furious at Charles’s virtual dictatorship, struck back Wentworth and Laud were brought before Parliament by an act of attainder, denied legal advice, and imprisoned Wentworth was soon executed, in an act of parliamentary absolutism as strong as any that Charles had ever been accused of by Parliament The crisis came to a head in October 1641, when the Irish Catholics rose up in bloody rebellion against the Protestants Charles and the Parliament engaged in a back-and-forth battle of legislation, each attempting to bring the other under control The unprecedented forced entry by Charles into Parliament in January 1642 brought to an end any hopes of compromise Charles abandoned London to Parliament and raised the royal standard at Nottingham in August 1642, making Oxford the temporary royal capital The first battle of what would be the English Civil War took place at Edgehill in October 1642, but was inconclusive The earl of Essex withdrew his parliamentary forces after the battle, leaving the road to London open to Charles But the king did not press his advantage, and Essex was soon able to gather reinforcements to block the way In 1643 Parliament formed an alliance with the Scots against the king Partly from exposure to the Scottish military tradition, Sir Thomas Fairfax began to form the New Model Army, perhaps the first truly professional force in British history Oliver Cromwell, an English squire, emerged as the driving force behind the New Model, which scored decisive victories over the king at Marston Moor (1644) and Naseby (1645) At last, Charles realized his cause was lost, and large-scale military operations ceased Negotiations were entered into with Charles but rather than treat with Parliament in good faith, he urged on the Scots to attack again for a Second Civil War in 1647 In January 1649, Charles I was tried for treason by Parliament, with his alliance with the Scots one of the gravest of charges leveled against him On January 30, 1649, Charles I was beheaded See also Counter-Reformation (Catholic Reformation) in Europe; Henry VII Further reading: Ashley, Maurice The Stuarts Fraser, Antonia, ed Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000; ——— A Brief History of British Kings and Queens New York: Carroll and Graf, 2005; Fraser, Antonia, ed The Lives of the Kings and Queens of England Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998 John Murphy 71 Charles II (1630–1685) English monarch Charles II was born on May 29, 1630 His upbringing was tumultuous, given his father, King Charles I’s, power struggles with Parliament As early as his teenage years, Charles II accompanied his father in military operations and was even put in command of some regiments Charles I had previously sent his wife, Henrietta Maria, to France for safety, where she had received a warm welcome She was the daughter of Henry IV, king of France and Navarre, and Marie de Médicis, of the ruling family of the city of Florence in Italy Eventually, Charles I was imprisoned, tried for treason, and executed Charles II then became the king of both England and Scotland In June 1650, Charles arrived in Scotland, promising to recognize that the Presbyterian Church was the dominant sect in Scotland The Scottish Covenanting Army under David Leslie was defeated by Oliver Cromwell, now virtually the ruler of England, at Dunbar in September 1650 A year later, determined to press his right to the throne, Charles and Leslie invaded England Cromwell would ever after call his victory at Worcester his “crowning mercy.” For some 45 days, Charles remained in hiding before he could make his escape to France, Cromwell ruled in England until his death, when his son, Richard, assumed the role However, he was unable to muster public support and resigned in May 1659 Charles was called back to England, and he returned on his 30th birthday—May 29, 1660 Charles’s reign was seen by most as a welcome return to normality after the harsh Protectorate of Cromwell, who had eventually divided England up to be ruled by major-generals answerable only to him Even the theaters had been closed because of strict Puritan morality—not to be opened again until Charles had become king Determined to be a very different king than his father had been, Charles was careful to avoid the frictions over church and state that had cost his father so much At home, he attempted to find some common ground between the Scots Covenanters and the Church of England Although his efforts eventually ended in failure, he permitted on the whole both churches to follow the dictates of their own consciences While his efforts at ecclesiastical reform did not meet his expectations, Charles’s relations with Parliament—his father’s sworn enemy—were much more fruitful In 1665, growing commercial rivalry at sea led Parliament to encourage Charles to declare war on the Netherlands While the British Navy was large,