art and architecture (1750–1900) decadence and weaknesses of the Ottoman Empire He stressed the importance of Arab unity Another Arab nationalist, Jurji Zaidan, wrote for the journal al-Hilal Whereas pan-Islamists, such as al-Afghani, believed in the supremacy and integrity of the Islamic legacy, panArabists like Zaidan emphasized its uniquely Arab character and the importance of history, language, and culture over religion The ideas of these early Arab nationalists would come to fruition with World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century Further reading: Abdel-Malek, Anouar, ed Contemporary Arab Political Thought London: Zed Books, 1970; Hourani, Albert Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 London: Oxford University Press, 1962; ——— A History of the Arab Peoples Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991; Philipp, Thomas, ed The Autobiography of Jurji Zaidan Boulder, CO: Three Continents Press, 1990 Janice J Terry art and architecture (1750–1900) The style of architecture in Britain changed considerably between 1750 and 1900 The Georgian mews and squares that were popular in the 1750s gave way to large suburbs, the ease of railway travel allowing for significant city sprawl The Georgian style in Britain was very much influenced by the style of Andrea Palladio in 16th-century Italy The architect Inigo Jones also built in the Palladian style, with some design features coming from classical Rome Perhaps the best example in England of this neoclassical style is the city of Bath, with its crescents, terraces, and squares Dublin is another example Sir Robert Taylor (1714–88) and James Paine (1717–89) also worked in the Palladian tradition In 1760 there emerged two great architects: Sir William Chambers (1723–96), who designed Somerset House, and Robert Adam (1728–92), who was the architect responsible for Syon House near London, Kenwood in Hampstead, Newby Hall and Harewood House in Yorkshire, and Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire Chambers, although remaining Palladian at heart, was influenced by the discovery of Baalbek in Lebanon Adam, by contrast, discarded classical proportions His work was elaborated on by John Nash (1752–1835), who designed Regent Street, London, and by Sir John Soane, who worked on the Dulwich College Art Gallery 35 By the end of the 18th century, the influence of India and China led to the construction of buildings that either heavily incorporated Asian themes or were entirely Asian in style Nash’s Royal Pavilion at Brighton, England, constructed in 1815–22, represents British interest in Mughal Indian architecture Chinese-style pavilions and towers became common in places such as Kew Gardens and the English Gardens in Munich Later, the emergence of Victorian architecture saw the classical style being retained for the British Museum (1823) and Birmingham Town Hall (1846) However, the design by Sir Charles Barry (1795–1860) for the new Houses of Parliament signaled the Gothic revival, with architects such as Augustus Welby Pugin (1812–52) and others being involved in the work The Crystal Palace in 1851 was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton (1801–65) Norman Shaw (1831–1912) developed functional architecture for houses, the Bedford Park estate at Turnham Green, London, built in the 1880s, being a good example Other architects included Charles Voysey (1857–1941), W R Lethaby (1857–1931), and Sir Edwin Lutyens (1869–1944) The Industrial Revolution also led to the construction of some iconic structures such as Iron Bridge in Shropshire Sculptors like John Flaxman (1755–1826), using a linear style, were responsible for many statues around London, with commissions for public monuments of national heroes such as Lord Nelson and, later, Queen Victoria In terms of British art, painters like William Hogarth (1697–1764), Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723–92), John Constable (1776–1837), and Thomas Gainsborough (1727–99) were important from the Georgian era; famous Victorian painters are Pre-Raphaelites such as D G Rossetti, Holman Hunt, and J E Millais In France during the same period, neoclassical architecture appeared from 1740, remaining popular in Paris until the 19th century This was, in part, a reaction against the rococo style of prerevolutionary France, with more of a search for order and the expression of republican values in Greco-Roman forms and more traditional ornamentation Jacques-Germain Soufflot (1713–80), the architect of the Panthéon in Paris, drew parallels between the emerging power of Napoleonic France and that of the classical world This can be seen in the Arc de Triomphe, La Madeleine, and the National Assembly building In Paris, the Opera was built by Charles Garnier (1825–98) in 1862 Georges-Eugène, Baron Haussmann (1809–91) laid the plans for a new Paris, a features of which were open spaces, parks, and wide boulevards The Eiffel Tower was built in 1889 Even before the French Revolution, paintings by Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825) had a clear republican