390 Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934) the United States would only retain control of military bases if the Philippines consented In 1935 Manuel Quezon was elected the first president of the Philippine Commonwealth The autocratic Quezon dominated the commonwealth period, solidifying his hold on power and dealing ruthlessly with political opponents During his tenure he did little for the rural poor, crushing their protest movements with force He led the commonwealth until forced to flee the Japanese invasion in late 1941 and died in exile in 1944 After World War II the United States fulfilled its commitment to grant the Philippines independence The United States handed over full sovereignty to the Philippines on July 4, 1946, thereby fulfilling the promise made by the Tydings-McDuffie Act 12 years earlier Further reading: Brands, H W Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines New York: Oxford, 1992; Friend, Theodore Between Two Empires: The Ordeal of the Philippines, 1929–1946 New Haven, CT: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1965; Karnow, Stanley In Our Image: America’s Empire in the Philippines New York: Trafalgar Square, 1989 Thomas Robertson