86 classical art and architecture, Greek the sculptor of these pieces used glass for the eyes and silver and copper inserts to highlight the figures’ teeth, lashes, lips, and nipples Their contrapposto stance is more emphatic than in the Kritios Boy, as are the details of anatomy The left arm in the Riace Bronzes moves forward to break into the viewer’s space, also breaking from the rigidity of the kouros-type figures of the Archaic Period In c 450 b.c.e Polyclitus took the elements of these statues one step further when he rendered his Doryphoros, or Spear-Bearer, known only through Roman copies With this work Polyclitus established the proportions for the Early Classical Period This resulted in muscular, athletic figures He wrote a treatise on the subject of human proportions that he based on a Pythagorean mathematical method The ratio of these human proportions were based on the fifth finger, as a unit of measure To him the harmonious ratio between the various elements of a sculpture were imperative Once contrapposto was fully mastered, the figure could take on any pose, including the most complex Myron, who specialized in the depiction of athletes, rendered the Discobolos (c 450 b.c.e.), a figure throwing the discus, the composition based on two intersecting arches The anonymous Dying Niobid (c 450–440 b.c.e.), originally part of a temple pediment, shows the female on one knee as she tries to remove the arrow of Apollo from her back She has been shot because her mother Niobe boasted of her seven sons and seven daughters during a festival in honor of Letona, Apollo’s mother As she sinks to the ground, her head, torso, and left thigh form a straight line while her lower left leg, right thigh, and arms diagonally break away from that central axis The contortions of her arms as she tries to remove the arrow have caused her drapery to slip off to reveal her youthful nude body, becoming the earliest female nude in Greek art Emotion is conveyed, not through grimaces, but pose, and even then the pathos is restrained For this, the sculpture of the Early Classical Period is normally qualified as the Severe Style LATE CLASSICAL PERIOD In 431 b.c.e the Peloponnesian War between the Peloponnesian League, headed by Sparta, and the Delian League, headed by Athens, broke out, lasting for 27 years Sparta, with the help of the Persians, defeated the Athenians, who lost their preeminence as the strongest power in Greece In the 350s b.c.e., Philip of Macedon invaded the Greek cities one by one, and by the 330s b.c.e he unified them, establishing the first European nation Philip was murdered in 336 b.c.e., and his son Alexander the Great succeeded him Alexander engaged in a conquering campaign that took him as far east as India These events marked the Late Classical Period In this period Skopas, Lysippos, and Praxiteles became the leading masters To this Late Classical Period belongs the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, built in 350 b.c.e by Satyrus and Pythius It is one of the seven ancient wonders of the world The building of the colossal mausoleum was commissioned by Queen Artemisia of Caria It was to be a worthy royal funerary monument built for Mausolus, her brother and her consort, whom she loved Artemisia summoned the greatest of Greek masters The Mausoleum was destroyed in the 15th and 16th centuries but has since been reconstructed in the British Museum based on ancient descriptions and including fragments from the original structure It combined Greek Ionic elements, including voluted columns (columns capped by a spiral ornament) and a continuous frieze, with non-Greek elements like a tall base, hipped roof, and colossal scale In between the columns were statues depicting lions, and above the roof was a chariot with the portrait of Mausolus and Artemisia by Skopas The portrait of Mausolus still exists and presents a different view on each side, denoting that, unlike most of the sculptures of the Early Classical Period, which focused on the frontal plane, this one invites the viewer to walk around it The continuous frieze that crowned the monument shows a battle between the Greeks and the Amazons (an Amazonomachy), the battle of the Lapiths and the Centaurs, and chariot races The sculptors in charge of the reliefs were Bryaxis, Leochares, Timotheus, and Skopas, the most famous Here the figures are in higher relief, in fact, almost completely in the round, in aggressive, vigorous poses, their draperies responding more emphatically to their violent movements The second major figure of the Late Classical Period was Lysippos from Sikyon, Alexander the Great’s official sculptor Douris of Samos reported that Lysippos had asked the painter Eupompos where he obtained his inspiration The painter pointed to a crowd to answer the question and then admonished the sculptor to follow nature instead of imitating other artists His attitude reflects the Aristotelian approach of empirically observing nature and its phenomena and then replicating those observations on the pictorial or sculptural surface