46 Boyne, Battle of the between Portuguese Brazil and the Spanish territories that confirmed the east bank of the River Plate, covering modern-day Uruguay, as Spanish Buenos Aires was made capital of the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, and the important silver mines in Upper Peru (modernday Bolivia) were given to the new viceroyalty Trade was now allowed to come from Europe In one stroke, smuggling was reduced and the revenue from tariffs increased Gálvez, fresh from his triumphs in Mexico, returned to Madrid and was appointed minister of the Indies in 1776 He sent officials who worked on increasing revenue, bolstering defenses, and helping increase agriculture and mining One of the first changes was the Law of Free Trade in 1778, which enabled one part of the Spanish Americas to trade with another more easily This further reduced smuggling Gálvez then introduced the position of intendant This person worked in the Americas but was directly responsible to the Spanish Crown, not the viceroy, so was able to give an independent report on events in the Americas An intendant was introduced in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1782, in Peru two years later, and finally, in 1786 in New Spain Although these moves followed the economic liberalization that was taking place in Europe, the government in Spain also introduced new laws that served to destroy much of their support in the Americas New laws reduced the ability for governors to appoint officials Massive dissent arose, some of it leading to talk of rebellion and even moves for independence This coincided with the Tupac Amaru rebellion; the great-grandson of Inca leader Tupac Amaru rallied his followers near Cuzco in modern-day Peru He led the first major uprising against the Spanish in two centuries At its height tens of thousands of Indians joined the rebellion with the Spanish having to send in large numbers of soldiers to restore colonial rule at the cost of thousands of lives The rebellion was brutally crushed The Tupac Amaru rebellion also showed that there might not be enough Spanish soldiers in Latin America should another large rebellion or external invasion take place Furthermore a brief stand-off with the British over the Falkland Islands in 1771 had ended when France indicated itself not willing to give military assistance to Spain In 1715, there were only 500 soldiers in Buenos Aires These were largely for protection of the governor and in case Portuguese from Colonia caused trouble In 1765, the numbers had been increased to 5,500 and 7,000 in 1774 The same happened in Asunción, Santiago, Caracas, Quito, and Bogota In 1776, the Spanish were suf- ficiently strong to take back Colonia; at the Treaty of San Ildefonso, Colonia, and the Banda Oriental was awarded to Spain forever Spain’s involvement in the American Revolution was expected to have brought greater wealth to the Spanish colonies However, as with the French, it was a costly venture and although it broke up the British Empire in the Americas, it left both Spain and France with large bills to pay Furthermore exposure to the ideas of democracy affected soldiers like Francisco de Miranda (1750–1816), who, after time in the United States, served in the French Revolutionary Army before trying to free Venezuela from Spanish rule When Spain sided with France against Britain in the first part of the Napoleonic Wars, 1796–1808, some people in the Americas saw it as their opportunity to use the British to gain independence Furthermore Britain at the time was unable to sell any of its goods to Europe because of Napoleon’s rigorously enforced “Continental System” and thus also had a commercial motive in South American independence When Napoleon ousted the king of Spain and placed Joseph Bonaparte on the throne, the days of Bourbon rule in Spain were numbered See also Jesuits in Asia; Reducciones (congregaciones) in colonial Spanish America Further reading: Cameron, Roderick Viceroyalties of the West: The Spanish Empire in Latin America London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968; de Madariaga, Salvador The Fall of the Spanish American Empire London: Hollis & Carter, 1947; Perry, J H The Spanish Seaborne Empire Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990; Rock, David Argentina 1516–1987: From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsín Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987 Justin Corfield Boyne, Battle of the After James II of the House of Stuart was forced off the throne of England in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, he sought to regain his fortunes in Ireland James went into exile in France in January 1689, as a guest of Louis XIV, the king of France After his Protestant daughter Mary and her husband, William of Orange, stadtholder of Holland or the Netherlands, were secure in England, Scotland and Ireland were still largely favorable to the Stuarts In Ireland, the Catholic population favored James II, who was a Roman Catholic Regardless