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Caribbean, conquest of the any civil jurisdiction, nor that the authority of the consistory interferes in any way with the authority of the magistrates and the civil courts.” Though some have called this period of Geneva’s history a time of “theocracy,” this term does not accurately reflect the actual organization of the city Calvin’s influence has extended to many churches throughout the world Churches that are “Reformed” or “Calvinist” in their theology include Reformed, Presbyterian, Anglican/Episcopalian, Baptist, Methodist, and Congregational There are many reasons for this influence First, the Institutes of the Christian Religion was a remarkable work and is still used as a basis for Reformed doctrine to this day Second, many English Protestant pastors and theologians fled to Switzerland during the persecution under the reign of Queen “Bloody” Mary (Mary I) of England When Mary was succeeded by her sister Elizabeth I in 1558, the theologians were able to return, but did so convinced of reformed doctrine Thus the English churches became largely reformed in their doctrine, though their various practices of worship differed Finally, Calvin’s close associate Theodore Beza must be credited with further systematizing the work Calvin began Beza was an equally prolific writer and continued the influence of Calvin’s thought and writing into the 17th century Calvin was an austere man, wholly dedicated to his preaching, governance, and writing He married a widow named Idelette de Bure in 1541 She had three children from her previous marriage and bore a son, Jacques, on July 28, 1542, but Jacques only lived a few days Idelette was in poor health after this time, and died in 1549 Calvin died in the arms of his disciple and friend Theodore Beza on May 27, 1564, at the age of 55 Further reading: Chadwick, Owen The Reformation New York: Penguin, 1964; McGrath, Alister E A Life of John Calvin: A Study in Shaping of Western Culture Oxford: Blackwell, 1990; Spitz, Lewis W The Renaissance and Reformation Movements Volume II: The Reformation St Louis: Concordia, 1971 Bruce D Franson Caribbean, conquest of the The Spanish conquest of the islands of the Caribbean region constituted the first stage in a process of conquest and colonization in the Americas that lasted more than 300 years, and whose effects remain read- 65 ily apparent to the present day Prior to the Spanish arrival, the four large and scores of smaller islands of the Caribbean were inhabited by a diversity of ethnolinguistic groups whose total numbers, by the best estimates, ran into the millions The Taino (or Arawak) Indians constituted the dominant group in the Greater Antilles—Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico—while the Caribs, relative newcomers from the South American mainland, occupied many of the islands of the Lesser Antilles Other groups inhabited different parts of the region, generating a complex mosaic of ethnolinguistic groups across the Caribbean in the centuries prior to the European arrival Population estimates for the preconquest Caribbean vary widely For Hispaniola, the first large island the Spanish encountered and subdued, scholarly estimates of precontact populations range from a low of 60,000 to a high of 8,000,000 Most estimates fall between 300,000 and 1,500,000, though it will never be known with any degree of precision how many people inhabited Hispaniola, or the Caribbean, or any other part of the Americas, before the European arrival At the same time there is broad scholarly consensus that by the late 1400s the Caribbean, like the Americas as a whole, supported a large and growing indigenous population, a growth that was suddenly and irrevocably reversed by the European invasion Genoese sailor Christopher Columbus, patronized by the Crown of Castile and Aragon (Spain), headed the expedition that inaugurated the modern encounter between the Old World and the New His first landfall in the New World occurring on October 12, 1492, Columbus went on to skirt the shores of Cuba, Hispaniola, and other islands before beginning the journey back to Spain in mid-January 1493 Before departing he left a contingent of some 40 men on Hispaniola, at a fort called Navidad, to initiate the process of settlement Convinced he had reached the East Indies, Columbus called the native inhabitants Indians, the name by which the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas have been called ever since The six Taíno Indians, as well as the finely wrought native gold work, parrots, and other items that he took with him to the Spanish court, which he reached in March 1493, convinced the Crown to finance a second voyage, much larger than the first Meanwhile, published versions of Columbus’s report to the Spanish Crown circulated quickly throughout much of Europe, beginning in Italy in April 1493 The effect was electrifying, as early modern
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