32 Arabian Peninsula and British imperialism provinces, General K von Kaufman The same scenario repeated itself as in 1839 With the Congress of Berlin ending a major crisis, the czar had no purpose in creating another crisis in Central Asia, so Stolietov was withdrawn from the Afghan capital Nevertheless, the British ruler of India, Robert Bulwer-Lytton, Lord Lytton, the viceroy, prepared for a military invasion of Afghanistan Lytton was a member of what was known as the Forward Policy school, which, believing war with Russia was certain, was determined to fight it as far from India as possible When the ruler of Afghanistan, Amir Sher Ali, refused to permit a British delegation to enter Afghanistan, Lytton’s army crossed the Afghan frontier on November 21, 1878 After Major-General Frederick Roberts defeated Sher Ali’s effort to stop the British, the Afghans pursued a policy of guerrilla warfare Sher Ali left the office of amir to his son Yakub Khan, who in May 1879 accepted a British resident, Sir Louis Cavagnari In a gesture of peace, Sir Louis Cavagnari entered Kabul in July 1879 with only an escort from the corps of guides, the elite of the British Frontier troops In September, Afghan troops attacked the residency and killed Cavagnari, most likely acting on orders from Yakub Khan Retribution soon followed In October 1878 General Roberts consolidated the British position in Kabul and defeated Yakub Khan’s men A second skirmish led to his final victory over Yakub Khan on September 1, 1880 The British could now install Amir Abdur Rahman on the throne, a leader they felt would pursue at least a neutral foreign policy and prevent the Russians from using Afghanistan as a base from which to attack India Indeed, the British demonstration of force in Afghanistan may have come none too soon, for unlike in the aftermath of the First Afghan War, this time Russia’s expansion into Central Asia rolled on like a juggernaut Even the great Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky wrote in 1881, “in Europe we were hangers-on, whereas to Asia we shall go as masters Our civilizing mission in Asia will bribe our spirit and drive us thither.” In 1885 under the new czar Alexander III, the clash Britain had long awaited took place A Russian army that had just conquered Merv in Turkestan continued on to occupy the Penjdeh Oasis in Herat— the Afghan buffer for British India had been breached In Britain, the response was swift Some £11,000,000 were voted by Parliament for war with Russia, a huge sum in those days Given such firm British opposition, the Russian force withdrew from Penjdeh Taking advantage of the Russian withdrawal, Sir Mortimer Durand drew the Durand Line in 1893, which established the eastern frontier of Afghanistan Two years later, the British had the Wakhan region added to Afghanistan, no doubt pleasing Abdur Rahman, so that Russian territory would not border India The Great Game in Central Asia would continue with both nations attempting to influence Tibet and China, whose province of Xinxiang (Sinkiang) was China’s closest to Central Asia However, as the 19th century waned, the British and Russians were both faced by a greater threat in the growing power of the German Empire of Kaiser Wilhelm II Already, the kaiser had made clear his interest in seeking German influence in the lands of the Ottoman Empire, even entering Jerusalem on horseback in 1898 In 1907, in the spirit of cooperation brought about in the face of a mutual danger, Britain and Russia peacefully settled a dispute over oil rights in Persia by effectively dividing it into Russian and British spheres of influence The Great Game had officially come to an end See also Russo-Turkish War and Near Eastern Crisis Further reading: Barthorp, Michael Afghan Wars and the North-West, 1839–1947 London: Cassell, 2002; McCauley, Martin Afghanistan and Central Asia: A Modern History London: Pearson, 2002; O’Ballance, Edgar Afghan Wars: Battles in a Hostile Land, 1839 to the Present London: Brassey’s, 2002; Tanner, Stephen Afghanistan: A Military History from Alexander the Great to the Fall of the Taliban New York: Da Capo, 2002; Wolpert, Stanley A New History of India London: Oxford University Press, 2004 John F Murphy, Jr Arabian Peninsula and British imperialism During the 19th century, the British extended their economic and political presence throughout the coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula With the largest and most powerful navy in the world, the British needed ports to serve as refueling stations and to replenish supplies of fresh foods and water for their sailors After the Suez Canal provided an easier and faster transportation route between Europe and Asia, the coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula increased in importance