64 Calvin, John months, until July Distribution of the loot commenced on July 16 An estimated 110,000 kilograms of gold objects were melted down in the furnaces of Cajamarca, transformed from vessels, ornaments, and other artistic objects into bars of bullion Each Spanish soldier received an allotment based on his rank, status, and degree of participation in the events of November 15–16, 1532, with Almagro’s men receiving a far lesser share than Pizarro’s Finally, on July 26, 1533, some 10 days after the distribution of the loot began, Pizarro decided not to honor the agreement to release Atahualpa but instead to execute him All of these events mark Cajamarca as the site of one of the most dramatic and important episodes in the history of the European conquest of the New World Further reading: Hemming, John The Conquest of the Incas New York: Viking, 1979; Lockhart, James The Men of Cajamarca Austin, TX: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1972 Michael J Schroeder Calvin, John (1509–1564) religious leader John (Jean) Calvin was a key figure in the Protestant Reformation He influenced directly or indirectly the beginning of the Reformed churches (Swiss Reformed, Dutch Reformed, Presbyterian, and other “Calvinist” churches) Like Martin Luther, Calvin was a scholar and prolific writer He is most famous for his Institutes of the Christian Religion, a systematic presentation of the Protestant Christian faith, but his influence extends far beyond this book The British statesman Lord Morley wrote: “To omit Calvin from the forces of Western evolution, is to read history with one eye shut.” Born in 1509 at Picardy, a city south of Paris, Calvin studied law at the University of Orléans He then studied under some humanist scholars at the Collège de France in Paris beginning in 1531 During this time, Calvin experienced what he later called a “sudden conversion” in his understanding of the Christian religion, becoming convinced that the Protestant thought of Luther and the humanist influence of Erasmus of Rotterdam were true At this time, France was completely Catholic and opposed any Protestant influences that came from nearby Germany or Switzerland When Calvin’s friend Nicholas Cop delivered his inaugural address at the University of Paris in 1533, it caused a sensation, as Cop used evangelical language drawn from both Luther and Erasmus King Francis swiftly condemned the “Lutherans,” and both Calvin and Cop had to flee, with Calvin settling in Basel, Switzerland (a Protestant city), in 1535 Calvin felt compelled to make a defense for his beliefs to the French king The result was the first edition of the Institutes of the Christian Religion The original edition was divided into six articles or chapters and was ordered in a fashion similar to that of Luther’s catechism In later editions, Calvin added two chapters, but much more explanation (the eighth edition, written in 1559, was more than four times the size of the first) The emphasis in Luther’s writings was on the doctrine of justification by faith, but Calvin’s emphasis was on the sovereignty of God and for him it was a key to understanding man: “Nearly all the wisdom we possess, that is to say, true and sound wisdom, consists of two parts: the knowledge of God and of ourselves.” Calvin is perhaps best known for his views on predestination, “that terrible doctrine,” where Calvin asserted that God’s plan for individuals is foreknown and predestined While a person still has free will, the person’s free will intersects with God’s foreknowledge Since God “knows” in advance if a person is destined for heaven or hell, how the person’s own decisions affect this destiny? Calvin’s views on this highly complex area were simplified by many readers to assert that God chooses which people go to heaven and which ones go to hell Calvin is also associated with Geneva, Switzerland Because of the tight connection between church and state, various rulers in the early years of the Reformation would decide for a region whether it would become Protestant or remain Catholic In Switzerland, each city ruled itself by means of a town council In 1536, the general assembly of the city of Geneva voted unanimously to become Protestant Calvin was asked by the Protestant preacher and leader William Farel to help organize the city Calvin’s legal training and gift of organization soon resulted in a novel form of separation of church and state in Geneva by means of a series of regulations called the Ecclesiastical Ordinances Geneva was ruled by the town council, but there was also a council of all the pastors in the city called a consistory, which included a group of men to watch over the morals of the city The city had laws against various forms of immorality (ranging from prostitution to dancing, card playing, or wearing “slashed breeches”) The town council wanted to ensure that it had full authority for civil matters; yet the Ecclesiastical Ordinances recognized a shared authority in certain areas: “These arrangements not mean that the pastors have