56 Byzantine Empire: architecture, culture, and the arts flourished under his patronage He even fed eight Indian monks daily for three months Having heard about Buddhist monuments like the famous Ananta Temple in the Udayagiri hills of Orissa, he constructed the magnificent Ananda Temple in imitation Kyanzittha also visited Bodhgaya and helped repair Buddhist shrines He tried to bring assimilation of different cultural traditions prevalent in Myanmar, and the Myazedi pillar of 1113 c.e had identical inscriptions in four languages: Burmese, Pali, Pyu, and Mon He sent a mission to China, which recognized the sovereignty of Pagan The transition from Mon to Burman culture occurred during the rule of the grandson of Kyanzittha, Alaungsithu (Cansu I), who had a long reign from 1112 to 1165 He undertook punitive expeditions to Arakan and Tenasserim Relations with Sri Lanka deteriorated over interference with trade between Angkor and Sri Lanka Alaungsithu nurtured Buddhism and completed the imposing Thatpinnyu Temple in 1144 The last of the important kings of Myanmar was Narapatisithu (Cansu II, 1174–1211), who ended the Mon influence in the Pagan court Relations with Sri Lanka improved, resulting in the end of the friendship of Burmans with Colas and a promise of noninterference by Pagan in Sri Lanka’s trade over the isthmus region The king also introduced reforms in monkhood However his successors were unsuccessful, and gradual deterioration started in the Pagan kingdom The shrinking of central authority resulted in Arakan and Pegu becoming independent The Thai people known as Shans began to enter Pagan There were also subsequent Mongol expeditions against the kingdom The last king of the dynasty, Narasimhapati (Cansu IV), was a boastful ruler, and his subjects murdered him for his flight during a Mongol invasion Under the leadership of the Shans, the kings of Pagan were forced into a ceremonial role only The problem facing Myanmar had been to hold together different ethnic groups, and this was evident in the Toungoot (Tungut) dynasty of the 16th century and the Konbaung dynasty (1792–1885) The prevalence of Sanskritized names and commercial relations point to the close link between India and Myanmar The region was geographically nearest to India among Southeast Asian countries, and there were land and sea routes through which cultural relations developed From very early on Indians traveled these routes to Southeast Asia Cultural intercourse between the two regions grew, probably through traders and Buddhist missionaries reaching lower Myanmar Adopting Indian practices, women were given a higher place in society, and the caste system was rejected Though Buddhism dominated daily life, it was mingled with Brahmanism At the site of King Kyanzittha’s palace, naga spirits were propitiated, and the services of Brahmans were required The king was proclaimed an avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu after his death The name of one of the early cities of the Pyu people was Visnupura (modern Beikthano), and it was a center of Vishnuite influence Images of Brahmanical gods such as Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva are found throughout Myanmar Compared to Brahmanism, the influence of Buddhism in Myanmar was greater In the Buddhist Jatakas there are frequent references to the sea voyage to Suvarnabhumi, or the golden land, which has been identified with Myanmar Kings like Aniruddha and Kyanzittha were patrons of Buddhism, and because of their endeavor, the religion took firm roots in Myanmar See also Champa Kingdom Further reading: Marr, David G., and A C Milner, eds Southeast Asia in the Ninth to 14th Centuries Singapore: ANU, 1986; Luce, Gordon H., et al Old Burma–Early Pagan New York: Artibus Asiae, 1969; Cady, John F Thailand, Burma, Laos, & Cambodia NJ: Prentice Hall, 1966; AungThwin, Michael Pagan: The Origins of Modern Burma Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1985; Tarling, Nicholas, ed The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992; Mishra, Patit Paban Cultural Rapprochement between India and Southeast Asia New Delhi: NBO, 2005; Sujata, Soni Evolution of Stupas in Burma Pagan Period, 11th to 13th Centuries a.d Edited by Alex Wayman New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1991; Frasch, Tilman The Pwa Saws of Bagan Leiden: International Institute for Asian Studies, 2003 Patit Paban Mishra Byzantine Empire: architecture, culture, and the arts Byzantine history spans the period from the late Roman Empire to the beginning of the modern age Constantine the Great, first Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, moved his capital to Byzantion in 330, renaming the city Constantinople The state he ruled was Byzant, but the citizens called themselves Rhomaioi (Romans) The Byzantine Empire was heir to the Roman Empire With the passage of time Byzantine civilization became distinct, as Greek influence increased and it dealt with the cultural impacts of Europe, Asia, and, after the seventh century, Islam During the Middle Ages, when the concept of Eu-