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470 Triumvirate Lepidus, also named pontifex maximus, became the two official heads of state In his will Caesar adopted Gaius Octavius (Octavian) as his heir—the future Augustus Caesar—and left him almost all of his fortune This practically unknown, inexperienced, and extremely young man was studying in Illyricum at the time of Caesar’s murder and promptly set out for Rome to take control of his heritage He tried allying with Antony, who refused to help him, having been offended at not having been appointed Caesar’s legitimate inheritor Octavian gained power and raised a private army He gained influence in Rome, which he secured through a series of demagogical acts, such as the provisions of food and entertainment for the urban plebs and adopting the name of the late Caesar MARK ANTONY AND THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE Antony departed to Gaul where, by means of the powerful legions that were stationed there, he gained increasing strength In November Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus met near the river Bononia with their legions and formed the Second Triumvirate Whereas the First Triumvirate was almost a secret pact of mutual help, the lex Titia presented to the tribunal assembly consolidated the Second Triumvirate within an official framework and invested the initiative with legality The triumvirate was backed and sealed by the marital union of Octavian and Antony’s stepdaughter, Claudia, and by Antony’s marriage to Octavia, Octavian’s sister Lepidus, a former consul in 46 b.c.e with no major political accomplishments, had an impressive military force in Spain and was wealthy enough to support the huge expenses that foreign campaigns demanded He also acted as a shield between Antony and Octavian, whose personal relationship was never quite strong, both eagerly looking for power One of the first political acts carried out by the new government was the persecution of Caesar’s assassins Brutus, after finding out that the Senate’s support could no longer save him, escaped toward the East, but he was captured and executed on the way, and according to Suetonius, his head was sent to Rome to be placed under Caesar’s statue The punishment extended to some 300 senators, and 2,000 knights were banned and their possessions confiscated The most famous case was the murder of the orator Marcus Tullius Cicero In 40 b.c.e the Roman territories were divided into three regions: Lepidus received Africa, the West was granted to Octavian, and Antony obtained the Middle East, Greece, and Egypt, where in 42 b.c.e he encountered Cleopatra It was the beginning of a relationship that would seal Rome’s fortune and their destinies ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA Octavian in Rome was dealing with one last menace: that of Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey, member of the First Triumvirate Being the provincial governor of Sicily, he had a large amount of power in the area, and therefore many of the outlawed citizens sought his help In 37 b.c.e the Pact of Tarentum renewed the triumvirate for another five years Nevertheless, the relationship between Octavian and Antony was deteriorating daily In 36 b.c.e as the triumvirate foresaw a clear danger, the island of Sicily was invaded, and Agrippa—one of Octavian’s men— defeated Pompey’s army Later that year Lepidus tried to keep Sicily for himself, but his troops did not support him and deserted to Octavian, who consequently deprived Lepidus of all his triumviral powers, leaving Octavian with 40 legions In 35 b.c.e Antony and his wife were in Greece, and he sent her back to Rome and carried his army against Labienus (the son of a general who had betrayed Caesar), who was helping the Persian king to assemble a powerful army Cleopatra joined him In 34 b.c.e he celebrated a huge triumph in Alexandria He repudiated Octavia, married Cleopatra, and declared Caesarion, Caesar’s son, the legitimate heir of Egypt and Cyprus By doing so he cut the final bond that connected him to Octavian The latter openly attacked him and turned him, in the eyes of Rome, into an Eastern enemy, dominated by the Egyptian queen In 31 b.c.e Octavian, elected consul for the third time, defeated Antony in the famous naval battle of Actium, which sealed not only Antony’s fate—he and Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 b.c.e.—but also the Republic’s destiny See also Roman Empire; Rome: government Further reading: Beard, M., and M Crawford Rome in the Late Republic Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985; Brunt, P A Social Conflicts in the Roman Republic New York: Norton, 1971; ——— Italian Manpower, 225 BC – AD 14 Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971; Carter, J The Battle of Actium: The Rise and Triumph of Augustus Caesar London: Hamilton, 1970; Clarke, M L The Noblest Roman: Marcus Brutus and His Reputation London: Thames and Hudson, 1981; Gelzer, M Caesar: Politician and Statesman Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968 Silvana A Gaeta
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