248 Ming dynasty, late The first of these was Zhu Yusong (Chu Yusung), better known as the Prince of Fu He was descended from Emperor Wanli (Wan-Li) (r 1573– 1620); in fact all of the main claimants of the Southern Ming were descended from him He assumed the title Emperor Hongguang (Hung-kuang) and reigned in Nanjing (Nanking) The new Southern Ming emperor sent emissaries to the Manchus He initially tried to conciliate the Manchus and offered them a subsidy if they would return to Manchuria The offer was rejected by the Manchu regent, Prince Dorgon In the ensuing fighting, the Southern Ming fared badly Nanjing was captured by the Manchus and Hongguang was taken prisoner to Beijing (Peking), where he died in captivity in 1646 Following the Manchu capture of Nanjing, several Ming princes were elevated to lead movements by loyalists against the Manchus, but none of them showed worthy qualities and their causes fizzled in quick succession, succumbing to campaigns led by both Manchus and Han Chinese generals who had defected to the Manchus The most notable example of Han Chinese participation in opposing the restoration of the Ming was Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei), the general guarding the easternmost pass of the Great Wall against the Manchus, who opened the way for the combined Manchu and his effort that defeated the rebel Li Zicheng (Le Tzu-ch’eng) General Wu commanded a force that drove Prince Guei (Kuei), a Ming pretender, into Burma and was rewarded with a princely title and granted Yunnan Province as his fief The most sustained resistance was led by Zheng Chenggong (Cheng Ch’eng-kung), better known as Koxing in the West (1624–62) who had a formidable force along the southern coast and along the Yangzi (Yangtze) River After his defeat on mainland China, Zeng and his son retreated to Taiwan where they held out until 1683 The fall of Taiwan to Manchu forces ended the southern Ming resistance See also Great Wall of China; Ming Dynasty, late; Qing (Ch’ing) dynasty, rise and zenith Further reading: Dennerline, Jerry The Chia-ting Loyalists: Confucian Leadership and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century China New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981; Hummel, Arthur W Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period, 1644–1912 Washington, DC: U.S Government Printing Office, 1943; Kessler, Lawrence D Kianghsi and the Consolodation of Ch’ing Rule, 1661–1684 Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976; Struve, Lynn A The Southern Ming, 1644–1662 New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1984 Justin Corfield Ming dynasty, late The Ming dynasty of China (1368–1644) was founded by a commoner, Zhu Yuanzhang (Chu Yuan-chang), who ruled as Emperor Hongwu (Hung-wu), 1368–98 He expelled the Mongols and began the recovery of China His son, Emperor Yongle (Yung-lo), ruled from 1402 to 1424 and was also a capable general and administrator Together they expanded China’s borders, strengthened the defenses, and pursued policies that led to economic recovery and agricultural revival The schools that they founded and the examination system that they revitalized to recruit government officials would serve the empire well during long decades when minors and weaklings occupied the throne However a succession of capricious and weak rulers eventually led to eunuchs’ controlling power and massive corruption that resulted in domestic revolts, unwise foreign wars, and dynastic collapse Emperor Hongwu instituted an autocratic style of government and both he and Yongle exercised their power vigorously and effectively However while Hongwu treated eunuchs as mere palace servants, Yongle began to entrust them with administrative duties, but under his firm control Yongle died leading his fifth campaign against the Mongols His son was already ill and died within a year, passing the throne to his son, who ruled for 11 years as Emperor Xuande (Hsuanteh) Xuande was succeeded by his eight-year-old son in 1436 Such short reigns were damaging in an autocratic system of government where continuity in leadership was an asset Minors on the throne required regencies by empress dowagers, who notoriously relied on eunuchs rather than ministers for advice Most Ming dynasty eunuchs came from poor families in northern China and were noted for their greed and extortion Boy emperors who were isolated from normal human contacts grew up dependent on them as friends and advisers For example Emperor Zhengtong (Cheng-t’ung) appointed his eunuch Wang Zhen (Wang Chen) commander in chief and the two men set out together in 1494 with a large army against the Mongol Esen Khan The army was cut to pieces, Wang died, and Zhengtong was taken prisoner Although the Mongols were too weak to take the offensive, this disaster ended