histories had little to with one another As Britain began to consolidate its imperial power and goals in the period of political stability that followed the Glorious revolution of 1688, its colonies experienced enormous population growth and new social and political challenges both within colonial society and in dealings with the “Mother Country.” In 1651, during Cromwell’s regime, Parliament passed its first Navigation Act, designed to assure that growing colonial holdings, including those in North America, would produce wealth only for Britain’s benefit and not for its European rivals Many more navigation acts would follow These mercantilist laws attempted to control both agricultural and manufactured goods Many colonists, including plantation owners and New England shipbuilders, were enriched, but these laws also restricted colonial growth and trade initiatives As part of its aggressive commercial policy, Britain, by the 18th century, had become the world’s major trader in African slaves, surpassing the Dutch Although the majority of slaves were destined for the sugar islands of the Caribbean, almost three hundred thousand slaves were “delivered” to the North American colonies between 1700 and the outbreak of the American Revolution Slave importation outstripped robust immigration of whites No longer suffering a manpower glut, England discouraged emigration by its own people (with the exception of convicted criminals) but wooed colonists from many countries, including France, the Netherlands, and German principalities, often offering religious freedom and British citizenship As colonial populations increased and competed, issues of governance and home rule emerged Many colonies had set up assemblies—Virginia’s House of Burgesses of 1619 was the first—to deal with local political problems These were by no means representative elected bodies, but were dominated by large landowners and other men of importance Colonies that traced their origins to proprietors (like Calvert and the duke of York) tended to have more autocratic governments The New England colonies generally allowed broader participation in political decision making Quaker Proprietor William Penn’s policies allowed more than half of Pennsylvania’s male population to have some political say Royal governors, chosen by the king or Parliament, would often override local assemblies’ intentions As colonial populations grew in the 1700s, so too did their thirst for effective political power Between the Glorious Revolution and the French and Indian War, assemblies in Pennsylvania, New York, Virginia, South Carolina, and Massachusetts often contested royal pre- British North America 55 rogatives and frequently had their way Colonial legislators asserted their rights as British citizens to participate in lawmaking Britain’s imperial dominance in the 18th century was closely connected to its relationships with Native American tribal groups and its use of diplomacy, or more often war, to keep Spain and France from gaining ground in the Western Hemisphere Colonial policies were crafted with an eye to outflanking perceived threats from the these two powerful nations, and their native allies Fearing that an alliance between Spain and France would imperil its colonial interests, Britain entered the 1701 War of the Spanish Succession In the subsequent Treaty of Utrecht of 1713, Britain gained control of much of eastern Canada and wrested from Spain its remaining colonial slave trade More conflicts flared up in succeeding years as the three powers competed for trade preferences and territorial control Flare-ups occurred regularly between British Carolina and Georgia, and neighboring Spanish Florida The “War of Jenkins’ Ear” began in 1739 when Spanish customs officials stopped suspected British smugglers and perhaps cut off the English captain’s ear By 1744, Britain was fighting both Spain and France for North American and West Indian dominance in the War of the Austrian Succession Wars with Indian tribes were a constant from the earliest years of British incursion in North America In 1622, Opechancanough, the chief who succeeded his brother, Powhatan, became convinced that whites had no intention of leaving He and his men attacked Jamestown, killing 300 settlers In 1675, Wampanoag chief Metacom, known to New Englanders as King Philip, launched a major but ultimately unsuccessful effort to drive out the rapidly growing white population Twelve towns in Massachusetts were destroyed; a thousand whites and three thousand natives perished At almost the same time, Virginians desperate for land were killing local Indians in an uprising known as Bacon’s Rebellion But European powers also made alliances with tribes, hoping to recruit their military aid against other tribes allied with their rivals The powerful Iroquois Confederacy, centered in New York and Pennsylvania, had once helped the Dutch, but later became an important British ally during King Philip’s War The Iroquois would help British and colonial forces attack the French and their set of Indian allies in the run-up to the 1754 French and Indian War By 1750, although not unchallenged, Britain’s North American empire was near its zenith Britain’s mastery of the continent would soon be enhanced by its smashing