308 newspapers, North American Such writings, however, were not Newman’s lifework, although posterity remembers him chiefly for his writings He preferred to live, until his death in 1890, the simple and obscure life of an Oratorian priest, engaged in liturgical, educational, and charitable activities Nonetheless, he was an exceedingly effective writer, though only an occasional one Except for a few monumental, indeed astonishingly erudite, theological works that were far ahead of their time, such as An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine (1845), An Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent (1870), and The Idea of a University (published only in 1873), much of Newman’s literary output as a Catholic consisted of responses to those who either maligned or misunderstood him or Catholic teaching Thus, his Letter to Pusey (1866) was a defense of Catholic devotion to Mary, the Letter to the Duke of Norfolk (1875) was a carefully nuanced theology of papal infallibility (defined by the Vatican I Council in 1870), and most famously, his autobiographical Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864) was a response to writer Charles Kingsley’s gratuitous and published attack on the Catholic clergy and Newman in particular These works had the cumulative effect of establishing Newman as a first-rate intellectual and a modern-day Catholic apologist With such accomplishments, one would not have imagined Newman undergoing years of suspicion and setbacks from his Catholic superiors In an article entitled “On Consulting the Faithful in Matters of Doctrine,” Newman had articulated his vision of a church in which laypeople actively participate even in doctrinal matters, since they have the spirit of truth in them Such ideas (which the Second Vatican Council adopted in its teaching on the sensus fidelium, the “spiritual sense of the lay faithful”) were deemed dangerous and heretical From 1859 onward, Newman was held in suspicion by prelates in Birmingham, London, and Rome It was only in 1879, when he received the cardinal’s red hat, that he felt that the cloud was lifted from him forever Cardinal John Henry Newman died on August 11, 1890, and was buried in Rednal, eight miles out of Birmingham One paper wrote: “No peer, or prince, or priest, or merchant who ever walked the crowded streets of Birmingham is so missed or mourned as the Roman Cardinal.” Cardinal Henry Manning, preaching at the London Oratory, declared that “the history of our land will hereafter record the name of John Henry Newman among the greatest of our people, as a Confessor for the Faith.” Newman’s enduring contributions are difficult to measure In his Anglican period, he awakened the church to a clearer grasp of Christian doctrine and a more energetic practice of the faith As a Catholic, he published timely apologias and seminal theological treatises remarkable for their scholarship, balance, and farsightedness Throughout his long life he sought to live virtuously, honestly, and charitably A man of deep prayer and unassuming humility, he once wrote in his private journal: “Those who make comfort the great subject of their preaching seem to mistake the end of their ministry Holiness is the great end Comfort is a cordial, but no one drinks cordial from morning till night.” The cause for his heroic sanctity is presently being pursued with the Vatican’s Congregation for the Causes of Saints See also Great Awakening, First and Second Further reading: Bouyer, Louis Newman: His Life and Spirituality London: Burns & Oates, 1958; Gilley, Sheridan Newman and His Age London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1990; Ker, Ian John Henry Newman: A Biography Oxford: OUP, 1988; Newman, John Henry Apologia Pro Vita Sua David J DeLaura, ed New York: Norton, 1968; Reynold, E E Three Cardinals: Newman, Wiseman, Manning London: Burns & Oates, 1958 Jake Yap newspapers, North American Emerging almost simultaneously with the appearance in Europe of new forms of printed communication, Britain’s North American colonies propelled newspapers to new heights of political clout, popular appeal, and financial success in the 18th and 19th centuries New technologies, including the telegraph and steam printing press, and an evolving connection between growing urban publics and their newspapers made this medium the communication choice of its era COLONIAL BEGINNINGS Early colonial newspapers tended to be small and mainly devoted to commercial information Papers like the Boston Gazette, founded in 1719, published commodity and stock prices, ship arrivals, and notices for goods available in town Printers needed to be literate; a printer who had opinions also had the means to express them As early as 1721 James Franklin, elder brother of Benjamin Franklin, opposed smallpox vaccinations in his New England Courant The ability of a news sheet to include controversial topics or political views tended to