Japanese constitution (1947) Changes wrought by the U.S occupation were massive: Public health programs eliminated epidemics, U.S police officials retrained Japanese policemen, and Japan’s dull official radio programs of government speeches were replaced with a combination of public affairs shows, impartial newscasts, soap operas, and popular music, all of which attracted millions of listeners At the same time the Anglo-American presence in Japan did much to change Japanese society The arrival of the occupation forces sent a shiver of fear through the Home Islands, fear that the dreaded gaijin—“hairy barbarians”—would rape, loot, and pillage, as Japanese soldiers had done in lands they conquered MacArthur gave strict orders regarding his troops’ behavior but did not issue nonfraternization orders As a result, U.S soldiers were soon overcoming language barriers to play softball games against Japanese teams, playing tourist at Japan’s many attractions, and giving out chewing gum and candy to ubiquitous Japanese children By 1947 the occupation had succeeded in its political and economic goals Despite Soviet intransigence, Japanese society had been transformed The combination of MacArthur’s steely resolve, U.S generosity, and Japanese industriousness and adaptability created the modern Japan, able to connect to both its historic roots and the Western world with its democratic values, economic systems, and advanced technology By March 1947 MacArthur himself said that the occupation was completed and began turning over control of the nation’s affairs and policies to the Japanese In 1951 the United States and most of its allies signed a peace treaty with Japan, ending an occupation that was generally conceded to have ended five years previously Further reading: Craig, William The Fall of Japan New York: Dial Press, 1967; Dower, John W Embracing Defeat New York: Norton, 2000; Kase, Toshikazu Journey to the Missouri New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1950; Manchester, William American Caesar Boston: Little, Brown, 1978 David H Lippman Japanese constitution (1947) Japan surrendered unconditionally after its resounding defeat in World War II It was occupied by the U.S military from 1945 to 1951 under the supervision of General Douglas MacArthur, supreme commander for the Allied Powers MacArthur undertook fundamental reforms of Japan, one of the most important being the 179 enactment of a new constitution in 1947, which became the underpinning of postwar democratic Japan MacArthur first ordered Japanese government leaders to submit to him the draft of a new constitution, but he found it unsatisfactory Then he ordered his general headquarters, under General Courtney Whitney, to produce a model draft that incorporated U.S ideals, which was readied one week later, on February 13, 1946 Japanese leaders had few opportunities to make changes to it, and the final draft was published on March and ratified by the Japanese legislature The constitution, which went into effect on May 3, 1947, was fundamentally different from the Meiji Constitution of 1889 It transferred sovereignty from the emperor to the people, making the emperor the “symbol of the state and of the unity of the people.” On MacArthur’s order he had already renounced his claim of personal divinity in a proclamation on January 1, 1946 The constitution also gave women suffrage for the first time and granted them legal equality with men It essentially copied the British parliamentary system with a bicameral legislature, called the Diet: the lower or house of representatives, elected every four years, held power over the upper house of councillors, also elected (every six years), which replaced the previous House of Peers that had comprised many hereditary nobles The government was led by a prime minister selected from the Diet by its members An independent judiciary was created under the supreme court, which was empowered to review the constitutionality of legislation Article of the constitution renounced war as an instrument of national policy, including the right of belligerence and the maintenance of all forms of war potential The goal of this article was to prevent Japan’s reversion to its prewar militarism; 31 articles were devoted to human rights, patterned after the U.S Bill of Rights Two-thirds majorities in both houses were necessary to initiate changes in the constitution Although the United States was the catalyst for the fundamental changes embodied in the 1947 constitution, it remained unchanged after Japan regained sovereignty in 1952, indicating that the majority of Japanese were satisfied with its provisions The only significant modification pertained to the creation of a self-defense force in 1952 This was prompted by the United States, in recognition of the need for such a force during the cold war, and warranted because article did not deny Japan the right of self-defense However, Japan’s self-defense force remained small, at 235,500 troops in 1995, and likewise its defense budget, at around