Native American policies in the United States and Canada summer of 1800 by an Egyptian nationalist, Sulayman al-Halaby, who was then executed for the crime General Menou, who had married an Egyptian woman, then took command, but he was highly unpopular with French troops Menou then entered into protracted negotiations with the English regarding the terms of the French withdrawal Negotiations dragged on as the two sides argued over possession of the many antiquities that the savants had taken from Egypt Ultimately almost of these artifacts, including the famous Rosetta Stone, were taken by the British and placed in the British Museum in London, where they remain today The French troops and the savants returned to France by 1801 In 1801 the English temporarily occupied Egypt At the time, they saw Egypt only as a way station for their more important holdings in the Indian subcontinent Under the Treaty of Amiens in 1802 the British withdrew from Egypt The Ottoman sultan promptly sent a new contingent of Janissary troops to reestablish his sovereignty over Egypt, but for a short period the Mamluks continued to remain an important political force as well Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition had long-lasting effects in Europe Largely owing to the popular publications by the savants, European society became acquainted with ancient Egyptian history and a new field, Egyptology, or the study of ancient Egypt, developed Europeans added Egypt to their itineraries for the Grand Tour, and a new tourist industry, including package tours, developed in Egypt The expedition also increased the awareness of European governments regarding the geostrategic importance of Egypt and the region, thereby contributing to western imperial designs for control of the area Although Napoleon’s expedition influenced a very small number of urban Egyptians, the modernization of Egypt began several decades later under the rule of Muhammad Ali See also British occupation of Egypt; savants/ Rosetta Stone Further reading: Al-Jabarti, Abd al-Rahman Napoleon in Egypt: Al-Jabarti’s Chronicle of the French Occupation, 1798 Princeton: NJ: Markus Wiener, 1993; Bierman, Irene A., ed Napoleon in Egypt Reading, UK: Ithaca Press, 2003; Charles-Roux, F Bonaparte: Governor of Egypt London: Methuen & Co., 1937; Herold, J Christopher Bonaparte in Egypt New York: Harper & Row, 1962 Janice J Terry 301 Native American policies in the United States and Canada Since the foundation of the first permanent English settlement in North America in Jamestown in 1607, the relationship between Euro-American politics and the continent’s indigenous inhabitants has comprised a major chapter in British-American, French-American, U.S., and Canadian history Imperial, colonial, national, state, and provincial government policies toward Native peoples varied widely and went through a number of distinct phases In the broadest terms, the process was one in which aggressively expansionist states—spurred by massive European immigration, settlers’ land hunger, efforts to enhance states’ fiscal capacities, and racist expansionist ideologies—successfully implemented a range of strategies intended to appropriate the lands of Native peoples In the mid-1700s indigenous peoples exercised effective dominion over most of North America, particularly the interior and the West By 1900 they had been defeated and marginalized, their lands seized in a long series of wars, treaties, laws, and court rulings, and their communities relegated to reservations comprising less than percent of the continent’s landmass, most on lands inadequate for subsistence and often on lands unfamiliar to them COLONIAL PERIOD During the colonial period, many Indian peoples in eastern North America were able to maintain a significant degree of economic, political, and cultural autonomy by playing off different European powers against each other (this despite the ravages of epidemic diseases, which severely weakened Native peoples before sustained interactions with white people had even begun) Emblematic here was the diplomatic strategy pursued by the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy (Mohawk, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, and Oneida), the dominant political power throughout upstate New York and much of the Great Lakes region, which shrewdly avoided strong alliances with any European power or colonial government With the French defeat at the hands of the British in the Seven Years’ War, Indian peoples in areas conquered by Britain lost an important counterweight to British power French fur traders and Jesuit missionaries, more interested in trade and saving souls than in acquiring land, on the whole were far more tolerant of Indians than the English After 1763 the balance of power strongly favored the British, diminishing the