Ming dynasty DEFENSE AGAINST THE MONGOLS Emperor Hongwu established a highly centralized administrative system that combined features from the previous Tang (T’ang) dynasty, Song dynasty, as well as the Yuan dynasty But he abolished the position of chief minister, so that the autocratic ruler held all the reins of power Recognizing that abuse of power by eunuchs contributed to the decline and fall of earlier dynasties, he forbade eunuchs to interfere in government He established a million-man professional standing army that was hereditary He gave governmentowned land to each garrison, requiring the soldiers to till the land in their spare time so that they would not be a burden on the treasury This did not work in practice and the treasury had to allocate funds to the army regularly The army units were rotated in guarding the capital region, the Great Wall, and at strategic locations throughout the empire and were trained by special tactical officers The division of authority between garrison commanders and tactical commanders prevented the development of warlordism and precluded revolts by the army during the dynasty Reflecting the deep resentment most Chinese felt toward Mongols, he forbade Mongol dress and customs among Chinese and ordered those Mongols remaining in China to adopt Chinese names and to become assimilated Emperor Hongwu, his sons, and generals led campaigns that drove remnant Mongols to the Lake Baikal region in present-day Russia They also regained all Chinese lands including modern Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Yunnan, Sichuan (Szechwan), and Xinjiang (Sinkiang) and accepted the vassalage of Korea, Vietnam, and Central Asian states EMPEROR YONGLE (YUNG-LO) Hongwu left the throne to his young grandson, who was, however, ousted by his uncle the prince of Yan (Yen), fourth son of Hongwu After a civil war that lasted between 1399 and 1402 and ended with the burning of the palace in Nanjing it was presumed that the young emperor and his family had died The victorious prince of Yan became the emperor Yongle (Yung-lo), r 1402–24 Yongle is also known by his posthumous title Chengzu (Ch’eng-tsu), “successful progenitor,” and is sometimes called the second founder of the Ming dynasty He moved the national capital to Beijing (Peking) in 1421, after rebuilding it from the ruined Yuan capital Dadu (Ta-tu); the palaces, temples, and city walls of that city date to his reign He had repaired the silted up Grand Canal to connect to Beijing to bring supplies from the south to the capital A 277 seasoned general, he personally led five campaigns into Mongolia to prevent the resurgence of Mongol power Another Ming army intervened in Vietnam in 1404, annexing that area to the Ming Empire However Vietnam regained its autonomy after 20 years and became a Ming vassal state Troubled by Japanese pirates he intimidated the shogun of Japan into accepting vassalage for the first time in history Yongle was also famous for authorizing huge armadas to show the flag, promote trade, and enroll vassal states across Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, to as far as the northeastern coast of Africa The eunuch admiral Zheng He (Cheng Ho) commanded seven expeditions (the last one set out after Yongle had died) In appointing Zheng He and other eunuchs to high positions Yongle violated his father’s strong injunction Although he kept them under firm control, later weak Ming rulers would rely on them for advice, undermining the bureaucracy and resulting in corruption and abuse of power, with disastrous effects For example, in 1449 a weakling emperor appointed his favorite eunuch commanding officer, and together they went to war against a Mongol chief, only to suffer defeat and capture, throwing the government into chaos in the process CHINA RECOVERS Government policies that favored land reclamation and economic activities resulted in growing prosperity, and the gradual repopulation of northern China and migration to the south and southwest, driving aboriginal peoples to remote mountainous regions Production of silk was encouraged and became widespread in areas south of the Yangzi River Women and girls were in charge of growing mulberry trees and tending silkworms and also worked in silk weaving factories, bringing additional income to farm families The cultivation of cotton and manufacture of cotton cloths also expanded during the Ming, providing clothes for ordinary people Crafts also flourished, with metal, lacquer, and paper industries leading the way True porcelains were first made in China during the Song dynasty, hence the name china Its manufacture continued to advance during the Yuan, but it was under the Ming that Chinese porcelain manufacture reached its apogee Under state encouragement, Jingdezhen (Ching-te-chen), the porcelain manufacturing center, had 3,000 government and privately owned factories Four emperors followed Yongle up to 1450 They and most subsequent Ming rulers were mediocre; many were also eccentric They abandoned the militant foreign