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Gold Coast (Ghana) By 1927 Giichi successfully gained the position of prime minister and served concurrently as foreign affairs minister His foreign policy was both aggressive and interventionist Most notably, Giichi intervened militarily in Shandong (Shantung), China, in 1927 in order to prevent Chiang Kai-shek from uniting the country Domestically, he worked to suppress opposition and has been accused of manipulating elections in order to extend his rule He is the reputed author of the “Tanaka Memorial”—the Imperial Conquest Plan for the taking of Manchuria, Mongolia, the whole of China, and then the Soviet Far East and Central Asia Japan claimed the plan was a forgery What cannot be denied, however, is that the so-called Tanaka plan reflected much of the foreign policy of Japan during the 1930s and 1940s and ultimately led to World War II His fall came from within his own administration His supporter Kaku Mori, with ties to two secret Japanese societies, the zaibatsu and radical groups, was able to influence him and his policies as prime minister—the implementation of interventionist policies toward both Manchuria and Mongolia Thus, Japan backed in 1928 the successful assassination of Manchurian warlord Zhang Zolin (Chang Tso-lin) in an attempt to seize Manchuria Due to quick Chinese response, the plotters failed to seize Manchuria until 1931 as a result of the Manchurian incident Giichi’s political career came to an end with his signing of the Kellogg-Briand Pact Opponents criticized him for exceeding his power and failing to take into account the sovereignty of the emperor The failure in Manchuria and KelloggBriand led to his resignation and the succession of Hamaguchi Osachi as prime minister He died on September 29, 1929 Further reading: Tsurumi Kazuko Social Change and the Individual: Japan Before and After Defeat in WWII Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970 Matthew H Wahlert Gold Coast (Ghana) The modern West African nation of Ghana was called the Gold Coast until 1957 This small African country is nestled just under the continent as it juts out into the Atlantic Ocean a few miles above the equator Ancient in its history and traditional in 123 its ethos, the Gold Coast garnered its name from the Portuguese in the 15th century Calling the area “da Mina” or “El Mina,” denoting the mines, the Portuguese were astounded at the vast deposits of easily accessible gold By 1472 the Portuguese had built a fort at El Mina to facilitate the emerging Atlantic trade system in gold, ivory, salt, slaves, and timber Both historic and contemporary ties made Ghana a major cultural and symbolic icon in the consciousness of African Americans Although the Gold Coast had several European nations as its primary trading partners, it is its British heritage that defines the contemporary nation Envious of Portugal’s success and wealth, other European nations began to explore West Africa By 1600 the Dutch had built several forts along the coastal inlets of the Gold Coast at Komenda and Kormantsil In 1637 the Dutch eclipsed the Portuguese as Ghana’s major trading partner when they seized Elmina Castle, and in 1642 they confirmed their regional hegemony by forcing the Portuguese to retreat from Fort St Anthony at Axim Dutch success gave strength to the ambitions of other European powers Thus, the British, Danes, and Swedes started to engage in regular trade as they built their own forts along the Gold Coast In these areas they exchanged alcohol, cloth, guns, and ammunition for African commercial and human commodities Having ruled the area and exploited its wealth for almost 300 years, the Dutch ceded their position in the Gold Coast to the British in 1872 Rushing to confirm the hegemony of the British Empire, England annexed the Gold Coast as a Crown Colony in 1878 But after fighting several wars with local chiefs, the British still only controlled part of the area Despite the superior weapons and cohesion of the British military, it was not able to conquer the Gold Coast easily Many different groups fought the British, who attempted to exploit local ethnic and regional divisions By allying themselves with the Fante on the coast, the British became the enemies of the Ashanti This early and pragmatic decision cost the British thousands of lives over many decades The Ashanti, foremost among the local groups who fought the British, proved England’s most capable foe From the time that the British sent ambassadors to Kumasi between 1817 and 1821 to discuss peace with King Osei Bonsu (the Asantehene) to their defeat in 1900, the Ashanti rejected British claims The Ashanti people were victorious during the 1823–24 Ashanti-Denkyira War, despite a British-Fante
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