xxx 600 C.E to 1450 about half of what it produced for itself, giving the remainder to the lord or the church They were subsistence farmers, though bartering took place for products that the serfs did not produce locally By the 13th century, rising prosperity had led to improved conditions for serfs, and some were able to raise cash crops, pay off their obligations to their lords, and move to towns However, European economies suffered sharp reverses in the 14th century due to climatic changes; colder and rainier weather caused lower harvests, higher prices, and population decline Wars ravaged farmlands and contributed to famines Between 1348 and 1354, the bubonic plague (Black Death) struck, reducing the population by about a third It did not recover to pre-plague levels until about 1600; ironically, the sharply reduced labor supply resulted in better working conditions for the surviving serfs Asia and Africa Like Europe, northern China suffered repeated nomadic invasions and warfare between c 200 and 600 They caused economic disruption in northern China and development in the south, which was spared invasions and saw an influx of northern immigrants and rapid development The completion of the Grand Canal around 600 c.e., which connected lands from south of the Yangzi (Yangtze) River to the Yellow River valley, would be crucial for the economic integration of the Chinese Empire after reunification and ensured efficient distribution of food and other resources Wheat and millet were the main cereal crops in northern China, and rice from irrigated fields was the main staple crop of the south The introduction of early ripening rice from the Champa Kingdom (modern Vietnam) around 1000 made double cropping possible; this, together with major projects to build irrigation canals and clear land, made possible significant population increases in subsequent centuries Whereas the Chinese population remained fairly static at about 60 million during the Han dynasty (202 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) and Tang (T’ang) dynasty (618–907), it had surged to about 150 million in the early 13th century It dropped to below 100 million, or by 40 percent, by the end of the 14th century because of disruptions caused by the Mongol invasions and subsequent Mongol misrule, including turning farmland to pasture land and hunting ground, neglecting irrigation systems, and the bubonic plague China’s population would not reach 150 million until the early 17th century The ability to feed an increasing population was because of effective government measures that improved agricultural technology by investment in hydraulic engineering that drained marshes and extended irrigation Sea walls were built along the southern coast to protect delta lands from storm tides, and a well developed network of granaries, roads, and canals were maintained to store and transport food According to nutritional experts, a wide variety of food crops, fish, and meat from domesticated animals made the Chinese among the best fed people of Asia, and perhaps of the world during this era, at an average daily intake of more than 2,000 calories Except under Mongol rule, Chinese farmers during these centuries either owned their land or worked as tenants or sharecroppers Chinese technological advances in agriculture were transferred to Vietnam, Korea, and Japan Thus agricultural patterns and food habits followed similar patterns throughout eastern Asia There is little information on food production from similar periods in India Indian governments, since the Mauryan dynasty (324–c.185 b.c.e.), claimed ownership of agricultural land and let it out to the tiller for an annual rent and tax, up to about half of the product Rice was grown along river valleys and on delta land, relying on monsoon rains and irrigation Where water was available, up to three crops could be harvested on some lands The farmers also cultivated wheat and millet, many kinds of vegetables, and fruits India was famed for growing a wide variety of spices used in cooking The Spanish and Portuguese voyages of exploration in the 15th century were motivated in part by the desire to obtain spices and other riches from India Increasing emphasis on vegetarianism by Hindus meant that there was less raising of animals for meat in India than in many other lands However, Indian farmers used bullocks for draft animals and raised cows for milk, which provided much of the protein in their diet In the eastern Mediterranean and Ottoman Empire, the production of grains and fruits was the main agricultural activity From China, Central Asia, Persia, the Middle East, to North Africa, sedentary agriculturalists and nomadic (or seminomadic) herders and pastoralists depended on one another to supply what each could not produce Pastoralism