350 pharaoh and even popular literature It does not offer the reader any moral lens to enable judgment but instead offers a vision of decadent Rome without flinching from the unsavory—a work unequalled in the ancient world for its complexity, length, and unerring focus on human depravity See also Homeric epics; Roman historians; Roman poetry Further reading: Conte, Gian-Biaggio The Hidden Author: An Interpretation of Petronius’ Satyricon Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997; Müller, K., ed Petronius Satyricon Reliquiae Munich, Germany: Saur, 2003; Rimell, Victoria Petronius and the Anatomy of Fiction Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002; Walsh, P G., trans The Satyricon Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 S-C Kevin Tsai pharaoh Although in ancient Egypt the term pharaoh (great house) referred to the royal palace and was used in reference to the monarch only as an instance of metonymy, modern historians follow the biblical convention of using the term for the monarch himself Some Egyptians of the New Kingdom and later used the term the same way, but informally and never in official contexts The first time pharaoh was used to refer to the monarch himself was in reference to Akhenaten The pharaoh wore a double crown to symbolize his rule of both Lower Egypt (Ta-Mehu, in the north, where the Nile Delta drains into the Mediterranean) and Upper Egypt (Ta-Shemau, in the south but upstream along the Nile River) The First Dynasty unified the two kingdoms in the 31st or 32nd century b.c.e It is not entirely clear who was the first pharaoh of a unified Egypt No pharaonic crown has been found; pharaohs apparently were not buried with it, and there may have been one crown that was passed on from one ruler to the next The record of pharaohs is incomplete and often conflicting; the case of Menes is only one of several in which modern Egyptologists believe a recorded name may refer to a pharaoh we know by another name, or may only be legend In the Intermediate Periods and the early dynasties, there are dozens of pharaohs about whom we have only fragments of names, names without further information (such as the length of their reign or when it transpired), or dubious names that not seem to fit with the information we have Many pharaohs we know according to different parts of their full title, which by the Middle Kingdom became the fivefold titulary, a system of increasingly formalized names arranged to describe the pharaoh’s rule These five names were the Horus name (also called the Banner name and the Ka name), the Nebty (or Two Ladies) name, the Golden Horus (or Gold) name, the praenomen, and the nomen The Horus name represented the pharaoh’s divine relationship with the god Horus and was written in hieroglyphics in a pictograph of a palace, usually alongside the god in the form of a falcon Horus names date to the Old Kingdom period and are frequently the only surviving name of early pharaohs, who adopted it upon ascending the throne and ceased using their birth names In the earliest dynasties Horus was read as part of the name: Hor-Aha, had he ruled in a later time, would simply have been Aha During the New Kingdom period Horus was often depicted wearing a double crown and appeared with a sun and a uraeus (a stylized cobra appearing on the pharaoh’s crown) The Nebty name became standard in the Twelfth Dynasty and was associated with the patron goddesses of Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt: Wadjet (symbolized by a cobra) and Nekhbet (symbolized by a vulture) Each goddess’s symbol appeared beside the name The significance of the Golden Horus name is somewhat less clear It appeared beside a falcon perched above the hieroglyph for gold, and the Greek portion of the Rosetta Stone translates as “superior to his foes.” Many Egyptologists believe the name symbolizes Horus’s triumph over his brother Seth, but gold’s symbolic meaning as “eternity” may be equally important, and the name may reflect something about the pharaoh’s wishes for the afterlife, an aspect of himself he considered immutable in any world At the end of the Old Kingdom most pharaohs were known only by their praenomen and nomen Each of the names was enclosed in a cartouche, an oblong that enclosed a name to indicate its royal status Other names were reserved for official formal purposes and record keeping The nomen was the birth name given to the crown prince and was represented by a duck (a homonym for the word for “son”) and a sun to represent Ra “The good god” or “the lord of apparitions” was sometimes added before the nomen The praenomen was a name chosen upon ascending the throne and usually included a reference to Ra It often appeared along with the title “Lord of the Two Lands,” another reminder of Egypt’s pluralism The full name of Thutmose I, a Nineteenth Dynasty pharaoh, was therefore Kanakht