VIETNAMESE EFL TERTIARY TEACHERS’ ENGLISH COMMUNICATION IN NON-ENGLISH MAJOR CLASSES: A CASE STUDY BY TRAN THI THUY LIEN A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Victoria University of Wellington 2021 Abstract The way English is taught at all educational levels has been a matter of big concern in Vietnam This is clearly shown by the National Foreign Languages Project 2020 (phases 2008-2016 and 2017-2025) which aims to renovate all aspects of English teaching including teaching facilities, teacher proficiency, curriculum, assessment methods, and learning outcomes, particularly in tertiary English teaching (Vietnamese Government, 2008) Teachers’ classroom English communication is an important part of English teaching and learning; thus, closely examining how they use classroom English and communication strategies is a necessity However, most international and Vietnamese research of English communication in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching contexts has focused on the perspectives of learners, with limited attention given to the role of teachers This thesis fills this gap by examining tertiary teachers’ practices of English communication in relation to learners’ perspectives This study investigated how English communication was used by five Vietnamese lecturers of English who were teaching non-English major students at two public colleges in Vietnam This research adopted a mixed methods and qualitative dominant approach The data were collected via classroom observations, survey questionnaires, individual interviews with lecturers, and focus group interviews with students Findings reveal that, while most of the lecturers said they used more English than Vietnamese, classroom observation and student interview data suggested that they spent marginally less time speaking English than Vietnamese Both lecturers and students shared viewpoints on the benefits of an English-only approach, but many did not think this approach would be applicable and effective in classes Both lecturers and students believed that lecturers’ choice and use of classroom language was predominantly influenced by the desire to ensure comprehension and to provide concern to students Findings further show seven key communication strategies used by the lecturers, with humour having not been previously identified in communication strategy research The lecturers’ roles as language users and language analysts are assumed to be mutually interconnected to lead to their practices of communication strategies; and the role of language teachers with their pedagogical learner knowledge1 shaped their perceptions on the functions and usages of communication strategies Mismatches between the lecturers’ and students’ Pedagogical learner knowledge refers to teachers’ knowledge of the learners in all their richness and complexity as well as teachers’ ability to accommodate their subject-matter knowledge and knowledge of L2 teaching to their learners’ varied learning trajectories (Le, 2020) i perceptions of classroom English communication were also identified Those mismatches were caused by a limitation on communication at the interpersonal level between the lecturers and students and the particularly hierarchical and formal teacher-learner relationship in Vietnamese culture To minimise those perceptual gaps, it is recommended that lecturers need to consider the perspectives of students to know what they expect to learn and how to learn that effectively Lecturers’ classroom communication styles and strategies are also shown to be important to help alleviating those perceptual mismatches It is also suggested that EFL classrooms should offer features of a supportive and motivating environment such as a well-designed classroom layout, teachers’ systematic corrective feedback, less asymmetrical power, and plentiful interaction opportunities In the communicative and learner-centred teaching approaches, EFL teaching needs to be innovative to better engage and motivate students and to create more learning opportunities Taken as a whole, this thesis suggests that socially affective classroom culture plays an important role in students’ foreign language (FL) and second language (L2) learning and development A positive lecturer-student relationship, a supportive learning environment, and interaction opportunities are the three main factors that can mediate and construct students’ FL/L2 learning This study also emphasises the essential role of lecturers in shortening the perceptual gaps between them and students and opening learning space for students Lecturers’ classroom communications strategies are used for communicative, affective, motivational, and pedagogical purposes and can be converted into students’ learning strategies with mediation tools To improve EFL teaching and learning, this study also recommends an English-dominant teaching policy, job-oriented and communicative-based syllabus and assessment, and frequent teacher self-reflection and students’ feedback Lastly, the research has useful implications for EFL teacher education and proficiency development ii Acknowledgement This PhD dissertation is, for me, a journey of interesting discovery and fruitful collaboration I would not have been able to complete this work without the guidance, support, and participation of those people whom I thank below Firstly, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Jae Major, Assoc Prof Jenny Ritchie, and Assoc Prof Robin Averill, who have been supporting me throughout this research project Their critical minds, dedicated feedback, and overall knowledge of the research field have developed my academic skills Their patience, sympathy, encouragement, and cultural understanding made this journey a memorable experience for me, an international married student whose language and culture is not English Secondly, I am especially indebted to the Vietnamese government and Victoria University of Wellington for granting me a doctoral scholarship to pursue this study My appreciation is also extended to the staff at the school of Education and the faculty of Graduate Research for their support during my studying and living in New Zealand My sincere thanks also go to Dr Deborah Laurs and Louise Falepau for their useful advice on my writing; Dr Lisa Woods for help with statistical analysis; Dr Thanh Nguyen for helping with data analysis; Dr Le Nguyen for checking translated data; Agnes Terraschke for proofreading my thesis; Hoang Thi Thu Ha for allowing me to observe her English evening classes and conduct my first classroom observation pilot study; and Ngo Nga, Vo Tho, and Tran Ngoc Minh for their friendship and useful assistance I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the Vietnamese lecturers and students who participated in my research Without their kind sharing and enthusiastic cooperation, the completion of this thesis would have been unrealistic I sincerely thank the heads of the two colleges and the deans of their English faculties in Danang, Vietnam, for their permission and encouragement during my data collection Last but not least, I am thankful my parents, Mr Tran Lac and Mrs Nguyen Thi Loi, my only sister Ms Tran Thi Thuy Loan, and parents-in-law, Mr Ho Lau and Mrs Dinh Thi Thu who gave so much love and endorsement throughout my study I particularly acknowledge my husband, Mr Ho Thanh Dung, and my beloved princess, Ho Tran Thuy Duong, who have been always by my side and motivated me throughout these years I dedicate this work to them all for their inexhaustible love and care during these oversea tough times and always iii Table of Contents Abstract i Acknowledgement iii Table of Contents iv List of Tables viii List of Figures ix Abbreviations x Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Statement of the Problem 1.2 Contextualisation of the Study 1.3 Researcher’s Position and Motivation 1.4 Research Aims 1.5 Research Questions 1.6 Significance of the Study 1.7 Organisation of the Thesis Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1 Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks in Second Language Acquisition 2.1.1 Sociocultural Theory 2.1.2 Interaction Hypothesis 12 2.1.3 Communicative Language Teaching 14 2.1.4 How the Sociocultural Theory, Interaction Hypothesis, and Communicative Language Teaching Approach Frame this Study? 17 2.2 Communication in L2/FL Teaching and Learning 18 2.2.1 Definitions of Key Concepts 18 2.2.2 Communication Strategy Taxonomies 20 2.2.3 Empirical Research in Teachers’ English Communication and Strategies in EFL Teaching Context 27 2.3 Classroom Language Choice 30 2.3.1 L1 Use in the L2/FL Classroom 30 2.3.2 English-Only Instruction in L2/FL Teaching 33 2.4 Teacher Language Awareness and Perceptions 36 2.4.1 Teacher Language Awareness 36 2.4.2 Teacher Perceptions 40 2.4.3 How Language Awareness and Perceptions Influence Teachers’ Communication Strategies in Classrooms 41 iv 2.5 Affective Factors in Second Language Teaching and Learning 41 2.5.1 Sense of Belonging 42 2.5.2 Expectations 43 2.5.3 Relationships 44 2.5.4 Motivation 46 Chapter 3: Methodology and Methods of the Research 49 3.1 Research Paradigm 49 3.2 Research Design 51 3.3 Research Setting 53 3.3.1 The National Foreign Languages Project 2020 53 3.3.2 The Two Research Sites 54 3.3.3 Lecturer and Student Participants 55 3.3.4 The English Classrooms 57 3.4 Participant Recruitment and Selection 57 3.5 Ethical Considerations 58 3.6 Instruments for Data Collection 60 3.6.1 Classroom Observation 61 3.6.2 Questionnaires 62 3.6.3 Interviews 63 3.7 Data Collection Procedures 65 3.7.1 Piloting Report 65 3.7.2 Main Data Collection 68 3.8 The Use of Vietnamese and English during Data Collection, Analysis, and Report 71 3.8.1 Vietnamese for Data Collection and Coding 72 3.8.2 English for Data Analysis and Report 73 3.8.3 Translation of Quotations and Related Issues 73 3.9 Data Analysis 74 3.9.1 Observation Data Analysis 75 3.9.2 Interview Data Analysis 75 3.9.3 Questionnaire Data Analysis 77 3.9.4 Integration of the Data Sets 77 3.10 Data Validity and Trustworthiness 78 3.10.1 Validity of Quantitative and Qualitative Data 78 3.10.2 The Issues of Trustworthiness 79 3.10.3 Potential Limitations in the Research Methodology 80 Chapter An Overall Picture of Lecturers’ English Communication 82 v 4.1 Proportion of English and Vietnamese Spoken by Lecturers in Non-English Major Classes 82 4.2 Lecturers’ and Students’ Perceptions of an English-only Teaching Approach 84 4.3 Lecturers’ Use of English Communication 87 4.3.1 Student-Related Factors 87 4.3.2 Lecturer-Related Factors 91 4.3.3 Contextual Factors 92 4.4 Students’ Comprehension of Lecturers’ English and their Learning Motivation 94 4.4.1 Students’ Comprehension Levels, Perceptions on Learning Improvement, and Motivation to Listen to Lecturers’ English 94 4.4.2 Lecturer-Related Factors 96 4.4.3 Student-Related Factors 101 4.4.4 Affective Factors 102 4.4.5 Contextual Factors 104 Summary 107 Chapter Lecturers’ English Communication Strategies 109 An Overview 109 5.1 Self-repetition 111 5.2 Code-switching 114 5.3 Translation 118 5.4 Interactional Strategies 122 5.5 Simplification 126 5.6 Nonverbal Strategies 129 5.7 Humour 132 Summary 134 Chapter Discussion 136 6.1 The Complexity of Language Teacher Roles in the Use and Perceptions of Communication Strategies 136 6.1.1 The Two Domains of Teacher Language Awareness in Communication Strategy Practices 136 6.1.2 Pedagogical Knowledge and Perceptions of Communication Strategies 138 6.1.3 An Emerging Taxonomy from an Integrated Perspective 141 6.2 Mediation Tools in EFL Classroom Teaching and Learning 145 6.2.1 A Positive Lecturer-Student Relationship 146 6.2.2 A Supportive Learning Environment 150 6.2.3 Interaction Opportunities 153 6.3 Tensions between How Lecturers See Classroom Communication and How Students Perceive What Works for Them 155 vi 6.3.1 The Amount and Use of L1 156 6.3.2 The Use of Communication Strategies 157 6.3.3 The Outcomes of Teaching and Learning 159 6.3.4 What Might Cause the Perceptual Gaps between Lecturers and Students? 161 Summary 163 Chapter 7: Implications, Recommendations, and Limitations 165 7.1 Addressing the Research Questions 165 7.2 EFL Teachers’ Communication Strategies in Non-English Major Classes 166 7.3 EFL Classroom Dynamics for Non-English Major Students 167 7.4 Perceptual Gaps in Non-major EFL Classes 169 7.5 Language Policy in Non-major EFL Teaching 171 7.6 EFL Syllabus and Assessment for Non-English Major Students 173 7.7 EFL Teacher Self-reflection and Students’ Feedback 175 7.8 EFL Teacher Education and Competence Standardisation 177 7.9 Challenges and Limitations of the Thesis 180 7.10 Directions for Future Studies 181 Conclusion 182 References 184 Appendices 222 vii ... use classroom English and communication strategies is a necessity However, most international and Vietnamese research of English communication in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching contexts... EFL Teachers’ Communication Strategies in Non -English Major Classes 166 7.3 EFL Classroom Dynamics for Non -English Major Students 167 7.4 Perceptual Gaps in Non -major EFL Classes ... particularly in tertiary English teaching (Vietnamese Government, 2008) Teachers’ classroom English communication is an important part of English teaching and learning; thus, closely examining how they