BONE READERS The Claudio Tuniz is a world renowned expert in geochronology using particle accelerators He is Assistant Director of UNESCO’s International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Ita.
The BONE READERS Claudio Tuniz is a world-renowned expert in geochronology using particle accelerators He is Assistant Director of UNESCO’s International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy, where he promotes the use of atomic and nuclear physics in palaeoanthropology He was director of the accelerator dating centre at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation and has published widely on Australian prehistory Richard Gillespie built a radiocarbon laboratory at the University of Sydney before taking up research positions at Oxford University, the University of Arizona and the Australian National University He is an authority on dating bones and shells, with wide fieldwork experience in Africa, North America and Australia Cheryl Jones is a science journalist who for many years has covered developments in Australian prehistory for international and Australian media, including The Australian Financial Review, The Canberra Times and The Bulletin This page intentionally left blank The BONE READERS Atoms, genes and the politics of Australia’s deep past CLAUDIO TUNIZ, RICHARD GILLESPIE & CHERYL JONES First published in 2009 Copyright © Claudio Tuniz, Richard Gillespie and Cheryl Jones 2009 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10 per cent of this book, whichever is the greater, to be photocopied by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act Allen & Unwin 83 Alexander Street Crows Nest NSW 2065 Australia Phone: (61 2) 8425 0100 Fax: (61 2) 9906 2218 Email: info@allenandunwin.com Web: www.allenandunwin.com National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Tuniz, C (Claudio) The bone readers : atoms, genes and the politics of Australia’s deep past / Claudio Tuniz, Richard Gillespie and Cheryl Jones ISBN 978 74114 728 (pbk.) Includes bibliographical references and index Accelerator mass spectrometry—Australia—History Radioactive dating—Australia 543.650994 Illustrations by Mario Tiberio and Walter Gregoric Index by Garry Cousins Set in 11/15 pt Sabon by Midland Typesetters, Australia Printed and bound in Australia by Griffin Press 10 For Maude, Patrizia and the late Diana This page intentionally left blank Contents Junette I LANDFALL Timelords and god-scientists Heat and light Mungo Lady gets date Stairway to heaven 17 27 48 II EXTINCTION 57 10 11 12 13 14 The melée Inside Geny’s eggshell Frank the Diprotodon Silicon beasts New World order Blast from the past Bison Cosmic impact Cool science, hot politics Extinction science 59 67 80 95 105 114 117 125 129 136 III ORIGINS 141 15 16 17 18 19 20 Gene wars Roots Hobbit Neanderthal ‘Vampire’ project Back to country 143 153 166 178 188 205 The BONE READERS viii Epilogue Notes Bibliography Acknowledgements Index 218 221 225 246 247 Junette Junette Mitchell did not hesitate when asked why she had given a DNA sample to a geneticist studying the evolutionary history of Australian Aborigines ‘I wanted to see how close we were to Mungo Lady,’ said the quietly spoken elder of the riverine Paakantji people from southwestern New South Wales Her motives when she gave the sample were strong enough to overcome the suspicion many Aborigines have of genetics research They were also a match for opposition to ‘colonial science’ Mitchell’s people, who have a history of frontier conflict and dispossession stretching back more than 150 years to the time when Europeans were encroaching on their territory around the mighty Murray, Darling and Lachlan rivers, are among traditional owners of the Willandra Lakes Region World Heritage Area, about 800 kilometres west of Sydney Her country takes in the relics of a 1,000-kilometresquare system of five huge lakes, dry for 18,000 years and now covered with saltbush and mallee scrub The Paakantji now lead tour groups to the Walls of China, a 30-kilometre-long lunette, or crescent-shaped sand dune, which rises up to 40 metres from the eastern and southern shores of Lake Mungo, the centre of the system They also work as land and heritage managers at Mungo National Park, which attracts 50,000 tourists a year Dotted with strange forms beaten by the westerlies into white quartz sand, the vast lunettes around the lakes have delivered up the skeletons of more than 100 ancients Mungo Lady illuminates an ancient culture and its interaction with a new land She was strolling around Lake Mungo when the fi rst modern humans were venturing The BONE READERS into Europe Her bones, along with those of her contemporary, Mungo Man—claimed in 2001 to have yielded DNA—are the oldest on the continent She is the world’s oldest known cremation, and she lies at the heart of arguments about the date of the fi rst colonisation of Australia She is also at the centre of the wider debate on human evolution—whether our species evolved recently from an ‘African Eve’ or had a more ancient and complex origin According to the ascendant ‘out of Africa’ model, our species evolved in Africa up to 200,000 years ago and spread out across the globe, replacing the descendants of even earlier African migrants The rival ‘multiregionalist’ model has Homo sapiens evolving at several points on the globe, with interbreeding pushing our species down the same evolutionary pathway Just how the fi rst Australians, Europe’s Neanderthals and Indonesia’s ‘hobbits’ fit into the global human evolutionary scheme is critical to the argument Australia’s multiregionalists engage in heated debate with its Africanists, and sometimes the arguments take on ideological aspects According to archaeologist Hilary du Cros, ‘Indigenous communities in Australia will probably be barracking for the multi-regional model as their creation myths tell them that they have been always here.’ The burials, hearths, shell middens and unique geomorphic features that won the Willandra UNESCO World Heritage status in 1981 have, at times, been a battleground for scientists and the region’s Aboriginal communities—the Paakantji, Mutthi Mutthi and Ngyiampaa—which once formed an alliance called the 3TTGs (Three Traditional Tribal Groups) Some local Aborigines have vehemently opposed research, and some had rejected the geneticist’s request for DNA samples ‘There’s a lot knocked her back,’ says Mitchell Asked to comment on opposition to genetics research, she said: ‘It’s only up to you—if you want to find out how close you are to those remains That’s what we wanted to do.’ Mitchell works tirelessly to pass Paakantji ‘lingo’ down to her people’s children One method is a game called ‘Paakantji whispers’— the children sit in a circle with Mitchell and pass on new words She is scandalised by some of the older children who have picked up naughty words in lingo and are repeating them at school, all too often when 242 The BONE READERS K Tartaro, F Niazi, C.L Turcotte, G.P Irzyk, J.R Lupski, C Chinault, X Song, Y Liu, Y Yuan, L Nazareth, X Qin, D.M Muzny, M Margulies, G.M Weinstock, R.A Gibbs & J.M Rothberg, ‘The complete genome of an individual by massively parallel DNA sequencing’, Nature, vol 452, April 2008, pp 872–6 Zhu R.X., R Potts, F Xie, K.A Hoffman, C.L Deng, C.D Shi, Y.X Pan, H.Q Wang, R.P Shi, Y.C Wang, G.H Shi & N.Q Wu, ‘New evidence on the earliest human presence at high northern latitudes in northeast Asia’, Nature, vol 431, 2004, pp 559–62 18 Neanderthal Carbonell, E., J.M Bermúdez de Castro, J.M Parés, A Pérez-González, G Cuenca-Bescós, A Ollé, M Mosquera, R Huguet, J van der Made, A Rosas, R Sala, J Vallverdú, N García, D.E Granger, M Martinón-Torres, X.P Rodríguez, G.M Stock, J.M Vergès, E Allué, F Burjachs, I Cáceres, A Canals, A Benito, C Díez, M Lozano, A Mateos, M Navazo, J Rodríguez, J Rosell & J.L Arsuaga, ‘The first hominin of Europe’, Nature, vol 452, no 7186, 2008, pp 465–9 Huxley, T.H., Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature, D Appleton and Company, New York, 1863 Krings, M., A Stone, R.W Schmitz, H Krainitzki, M Stoneking & S Pääbo, ‘Neanderthal DNA sequences and the origins of modern humans’, Cell, vol 90, 1997, pp 19–30 Lewin, R & R.A Foley, Principles of Human Evolution, Blackwell, Oxford, 2004 Martinon-Torres, M., M.J Bermúdez de Castro, A Gómez-Robles, J.L Arsuaga, E Carbonell, D Lordkipanidze, G Manzi & A Margvelashvili, ‘Dental evidence on the hominin dispersals during the Pleistocene’, PNAS, vol 104, no 33, 2007, pp 13,279–82 Moser, S., ‘The visual language of archaeology: A case study of the Neanderthals’, Antiquity, vol 66, 1992, pp 831–44 Olejniczak, A.J., T.M Smith, R.N.M Feeney, R Macchiarelli, A Mazurier, L Bondioli, A Rosas, J Fortea, M de la Rasilla, A Garcia-Tabernero, J Radovčić, M.M Skinner, M Toussaint & J.J Bibliography 243 Hublin, ‘Dental tissue proportion and enamel thickness in Neanderthal and modern human molars’, Journal of Human Evolution, vol 55, 2008, pp 12–23 Richards, M., K Harvati, V Grimes, C Smith, T Smith, J-J Hublin, P Karkanas & E Panagopoulou, ‘Strontium isotope evidence of Neanderthal mobility at the site of Lakoni, Greece using laserablation PIMMS’, Journal of Archaeological Science, vol 35, 2008, pp 1251–6 Stringer, C.B & P Andrews, ‘Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans’, Science, vol 239, 1988, pp 1263–8 Trinkaus, E., ‘European early modern humans and the fate of the Neanderthals’, PNAS, vol 104, 2007, pp 7367–72 Watson, E., P Forster, M Richards, H-J Bandelt, ‘Mitochondrial footprints of human expansions in Africa’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol 61, no 3, 1997, pp 691–704 Yamei, H., R Potts, Y Baoyin, G Zhengtang, A Deino, W Wei, J Clark, X Guangmao & H Weiwen, ‘Mid-Pleistocene Acheuleanlike stone technology of the Bose Basin, South China’, Science, vol 287, 2000, pp 1622–6 19 ‘Vampire’ project Behar, D.M., R Villems, H Soodyall, J Blue-Smith, L Pereira, E Metspalu, R Scozzari, H Makkan, S Tzur, D Comas, J Bertranpetit, L Quintana-Murci, C Tyler-Smith, R.S Wells, S Rosset & The Genographic Consortium, ‘The dawn of human matrilineal diversity’, American Journal of Human Genetics, vol 82, no 5, April 24, 2008, pp 1130–40 Burke, H., C Lovell-Jones & C Smith, ‘Beyond the looking glass: Some thoughts on sociopolitics and reflexivity in Australian archaeology’, Australian Archaeology, no 38, 1994, pp 13–22 Cann, H.M., C de Toma, L Cazes, M.-F Legrand, V Morel, L Piouffre, J Bodmer, W.F Bodmer, B Bonne-Tamir, A CambonThomsen, Zhu Chen, Jiayou Chu, C Carcassi, L Contu, R Du, L Excoffier, J.S Friedlaender, H Groot, D Gurwitz, R.J Herrera, Xiaoyi Huang, J Kidd, K.K Kidd, A Langaney, A.A Lin, S.Q Mehdi, P Parham, A Piazza, M.P Pistillo, Yaping Qian, Qunfang 244 The BONE READERS Shu, Jiujin Xu, S Zhu, J.L Weber, H.T Greely, M.W Feldman, G Thomas, J Dausset & L.L Cavalli-Sforza, ‘A human genome diversity cell line panel’, Science, vol 296, no 5566, Apr 2002, pp 261–2 Li, J.Z., D.M Absher, H Tang, A.M Southwick, A.M Casto, S.Ramachandran, H.M Cann, G.S Barsh, M Feldman, L.L Cavalli-Sforza & R.M Myers, ‘Worldwide human relationships inferred from genome-wide patterns of variation’, Science, vol 319, no 5866, 2008, pp 1100–4 Orlando, L., P Darlu, M Toussaint, D Bonjean, M Otte & C Hänni, ‘Revisiting Neanderthal diversity with a 100,000 year old mtDNA sequence’, Current Biology, vol 16, no 11, 2006, pp R400–2 Smith, L., ‘What is this thing called postprocessual archaeology and is it relevant for Australian archaeology?’, Australian Archaeology, no 40, 1995, pp 28–31 Stone, L., P.F Lurquin & L.L Cavalli-Sforza, Genes, Culture and Human Evolution: A synthesis, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 2007 HUGO, ‘The Human Genome Diversity (HGD) Project Summary Document’, 1994 Wells, S., Deep Ancestry: Inside the Genographic Project, National Geographic, Washington, DC, 2006, p 247 Wheeler, D.A., M Srinivasan, M Egholm, Y Shen, L Chen, A McGuire, Wen He, Yi-Ju Chen, V Makhijani, G.T Roth, X Gomes, K Tartaro, F Niazi, C.L Turcotte, G.P Irzyk, J.R Lupski, C Chinault, Xing-zhi Song, Yue Liu, Ye Yuan, L Nazareth, Xiang Qin, D.M Muzny, M Margulies, G.M Weinstock, R.A Gibbs & J.M Rothberg, ‘The complete genome of an individual by massively parallel DNA sequencing’, Nature, vol 452, April 2008, pp 872–6 20 Back to country Budinich, M., E Montagnari & C Tuniz, International Workshop on Science for Cultural Heritage, Trieste, Italy, October 23–27, 2006, Proceedings, World Scientific, Hong Kong (in press) Chalmers, N ‘Statement of dissent from Neil Chalmers’, in ‘Report of Bibliography 245 the working group on human remains’, 2003 Mulvaney, D.J., ‘Past regained, future lost: The Kow Swamp Pleistocene burials’, Antiquity, vol 65, no 246, 1991, pp 12–21 Smith, L., ‘The repatriation of human remains—problem or opportunity’, Antiquity, vol 78, pp 404–13 Tafforeau, P & T.M Smith, ‘Nondestructive imaging of hominoid dental microstructure using phase contrast X-ray synchrotron microtomography’, Journal of Human Evolution, vol 54, 2008, pp 272–8 Acknowledgements Writing this book involved interviews with some of the world’s top researchers, many of whom welcomed us into their laboratories and onto sites However, space did not permit coverage of all scholars who have made big contributions to palaeostudies Some of the results and hypotheses reported here will be refined— perhaps even abandoned—as more evidence comes to hand The opinions in this book are ours, and are not necessarily shared by those we acknowledge here We thank Jeremy Austin, Alex Baynes, Jim Bowler, Peter Brown, John Chappell, Ron Clarke, Alan Cooper, Matt Cupper, Francesco d’Errico, James Dixon, Louise Dunn, Graham Farquhar, Keith Fifield, Tim Flannery, Peter Forster, Michael Gagan, Russ Graham, Colin Groves, Rainer Grün, Simon Haberle, Hal Hatch, Harvey Johnston, Rhys Jones, Peter Kershaw, John Long, Simon Longstaff, Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Ernest Lundelius, John Magee, Paul Martin, Duncan Merrilees, Gifford Miller, John Mitchell, Junette Mitchell, Leanne Mitchell, Mike Morwood, John Mulvaney, Jon Olley, Tim Partridge, Svante Pääbo, Gavin Prideaux, Tom Rich, Richard Roberts, Mike Smith, David Steadman, Chris Stringer, Grant Sutherland, Phillip Tobias, Chris Turney, Steve Webb, Elizabeth Weiss, Rod Wells, Spencer Wells, Michael Westaway, Martin Williams and Milford Wolpoff 246 Index Page numbers in italics refer to figures AAR dating see dating methods Abdur, Eritrea, 164 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, 206 Aborigines DNA comparisons with other populations, 164–5 Mungo Statement (1989), 25–6 repatriation of remains of, 8–9, 26, 143, 204, 205–13, 219 use of fi re, 60, 62, 78–9, 101, 103 ABOX-SC see acid-baseoxidation, stepped combustion ACAD see Australian Centre for Ancient DNA accelerator mass spectrometry, 19, 44–7, 54, 77, 108, 112, 148, 181–3, 207 acid-base-oxidation, stepped combustion 46–7, 99, 171 Adcock, Greg, 148, 149, 151 Adelaide School of Medicine, 205 Adovasio, James, 108 Aepyornis maximus, 60 Africa and other continents, 53–55 attitude towards research on human remains, 214 development of Homo sapiens in, 2, 154 megafauna extinction, 60 Africanists see ‘out of Africa’ theory Agassiz, Louis, 51 Ainu people, 14 Aitken, Martin, 18 albatross, 96 Allen, Harry, 29–30, 31, 35 Allen, Jim, 47 Alroy, John, 97 aluminium-26, 54, 181 Americas colonisation of, 103, 105–13, 128, 133, 197 extinction of megafauna, 13, 61, 110–11, 114–16, 128, 132, 133 migration to from Asia, 110, 112 amino acid racemisation dating see dating methods AMS see accelerator mass spectrometry 247 Andaman Islanders, 162, 212–13 Andhra Pradesh, 162–3 ANTARES accelerator, 44 Antevs, Ernst, 107 Archer, Mike, 63–5 Argon-argon dating see dating methods Argue, Debbie, 173 ARKENAS, 166, 169, 172 assimilation model, 182 asteroid, 126 astronomical theories see Milankovitch Atherton Tableland, 98–9 Aurignacian culture, 183, 184 Austin, Jeremy, 121, 166 Australian Centre for Ancient DNA, 118, 189, 204 Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, 35 Australian Museum, 20, 22, 59, 64, 80, 88, 149, 205 Australian National University accelerator, 44–6 Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, 25, 44, 207 248 Australian Research Council, 216 Australian Women in Archaeology 1993 conference, 19 Australia’s Lost Kingdoms exhibition, 59 australopithecines, 155–6, 160–1, 175–6, 214 Australopithecus afarensis see australopithecines Australopithecus africanus see australopithecines Ayliffe, Linda, 83, 87, 102, 217 Bada, Jeff, 107 Bahn, Paul, 109 Barbados, 51 Barbetti, Michael, 35 Barnes, John, 28 Barnosky, Anthony, 97, 111 Bartman, Sarah, 215 Bassian landbridge, 56 Baynes, Alex, 82, 92 Behar, Doron, 203 Benson, John, 129–30 Beringia, 105, 110, 117, 121, 122 beryllium-10, 54, 181 bioregions, 55–6 Bird, Michael, 46, 171 Birdsell, Joe, 48 bison, 106–7, 117–23 Blackwater Draw, New Mexico, 127 Blair, Tony, 209 ‘blitzkrieg’ hypothesis see megafauna, extinction of bone dating, 34, 36, 106–7, 108, 111–12, 119, 163 Border Cave, South Africa, 158 Bowler, Jim, 3, 10, 27–31, 33–6, 41, 43–4, 73 Bowman, David, 64–5, 95–6 Boyle, Robert, 18 Bradshaw rock art, 20 Bringing Them Home report, 192 British Museum, 211 Broecker, Wally, 123, 127 The BONE READERS Brook, Barry, 89, 90, 92, 95, 217 Broom, Robert, 153, 154 Brotherton, Paul, 204 Brown, Peter, 144–6, 149, 166–7, 169–73, 175–6 Brunhes-Matuyama reversal, 170 Bryan, Alan, 132 Bryan, Kirk, 107 Burgess, Greg, 218 burial dating, 181 Burke, Heather, 200 C3 and C4 vegetation, 75–8 Calaby, John, 29 Calico Foothills, California, 108 CalPal-2007, 40 ‘calving’, of icebergs, 55 Cambridge University, 20–1 Cameron, David, 145, 174 Cann, Rebecca, 147 cannibalism, 184 carbon-12 and carbon-13, 33, 74–5 carbon-14, 32–3, 45, 51, 74 Carpenter’s Gap, Western Australia, 47 catastrophism, 124, 127 Cathedral Cave, South Australia, 86 Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca, 162–3, 189, 192, 195–6 Celera Genomics, 191 Centre pour l’Etude du Polymorphisme Humain, Paris, 195 Chalmers, Neil, 210 Chappell, John, 33, 48–53, 55, 56, 100 charcoal, in radiocarbon dating, 36–7, 63, 82, 88–92, 98, 100 Chauvet Cave paintings, 22 Chippendale, Christopher, 24 Christian fundamentalists, 195–6 chromosomes, 147, 148, 164–5, 197–8 chromotography, 72 Circeo, Italy, 182 Clark, Peter, 36 Clarke, Ron, 153–7 climate change as an agent of migration, 159–60 as a cause of megafauna extinction, 59, 62–3, 73–4, 78, 86, 88, 93, 100, 121 oxygen isotopes as a guide to, 53 climate reconstruction, 102 cloning, 151 Clovis, 105–7, 109–10, 126, 127, 131–2, 134 Clovis and Beyond 1999 conference, Santa Fe, 131–2, 135 ‘Clovis First’ hypothesis, 105, 106, 131–2 Colgan, Don, 149 collagen, 32, 34, 41, 63, 82, 89, 111–12 Colombus, Christopher, 103 Colonial Sugar Refi ning Company, 75 comets, 127 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, 43 compound-specific radiocarbon dating, 112, 138 contamination, of samples, 118 Cooper, Alan, 117–18, 120–1, 149–51, 166–7, 204 coprolites, 115 coral dating, 39, 48–51, 55, 100 coral terraces, Papua New Guinea, 48–51 cosmogenic isotopes, 54, 155, 181 Cox’s Creek, 80, 83 Cradle of Humankind, 153 Cremo, Michael, 106 Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary hit, 126 Crick, Francis, 191 Index Cro-Magnon burials, France, 31 Crook, Keith, 29 Crozet Islands, 96–7 Cuddie Springs, New South Wales, 84, 85, 87–90, 137, 217 cultural artefacts, 13 Cupper, Matt, 11, 148 Cuvier, George, 215 D-alloisoleucine, 72 Daniels, Farrington, 18 Dart, Raymond, 153, 155 Darwin, Charles, 55, 178 dating methods amino acid racemisation, AAR, 72, 88, 107–8 argon-argon, 105, 160–1 dendrochronology, 38 electron spin resonance, ESR, 41–2, 44, 91, 94, 105, 161, 163, 217 fission-track, 170 palaeomagnetic, 101–2, 105, 170 potassium-argon see dating methods, argonargon uranium-series, 42, 44, 55, 94, 101, 159, 161–3, 217 see also luminescence dating; radiocarbon dating David, Bruno, 20, 90 de Vries, Hessel, 38 Deloria, Vine, 112 dendrochronology see dating methods d’Errico, Francesco, 183, 184 deuterium, 54 Devil’s Lair, Western Australia, 46, 47, 171 diamonds, 126 diets, reconstruction of, 74, 77–8 Dillehay, Tom, 109 Dingo, Ernie, 47 dinosaurs, 126 Diprotodon optatum, 68, 81 diprotodons, 61, 80–94 Discovery Grants, 216 Dmanisi remains, Georgia, 160, 171, 180 DNA analysis advent of, 146 of bison bones, 117–23 comparison of populations, 164 of dung balls, 115 early research, 190–1 of Homo sapiens, 186 human genome projects, 188–204 of mammoths, 185 of mitochondrial DNA, 119–20, 147–9 mouthwash for samples, 197 of Neanderthals, 184–7 problem of sample contamination, 149–51, 204 of South-east Asians, 164 DNA profi ling, 110 DNA samples, 1, Dodson, Mick, 194 Don River, Russia, 164 Douglass, Andrew, 38 Dreaming, 21, 22 Dromornithidae, 67 Dryas octopetala, 123, 123 Drysdale, Russell, 35 du Cros, Hilary, 2, 19 Dubois, Eugene, 161 dung balls, analysis of, 114–16, 119 Dunn, Louise, 80–2 Dutch Geological Survey, 161 dwarfi ng, 171 Easteal, Simon, 148–9 Echuca Aboriginal Cooperative Society, 207 eggshell, of Genyoris, 60, 66–79, 103 Egyptian sites, radiocarbon dating of, 37–8 El Niño, 66, 86, 93, 100, 138 El Sidrón, Spain, 184 249 electron spin resonance dating see dating methods elephant bird, 60 elephants, dwarf, 171 Emiliani, Cesare, 52 emus, 70, 72, 77 Eocene period, 67 EPICA Antarctic core, 54 ESR dating see dating methods eugenics, 189 Eurasia, megafauna extinction, 60–1 extinction see megafauna, extinction of extraterrestial strikes, 125–8 Exxon-Mobil, 63 Falk, Dean, 173 Farquhar, Graham, 75, 76 faunal stages, of fossilbearing deposits, 159 Feldhofer I, 179, 184 Feldhofer, Neander Valley, 178 feminism, 19 Fiedel, Stuart, 132 Field, Judith, 85, 88–90, 93, 128, 131–3, 137, 217 Fifield, Keith, 44–6, 148, 171 fi restick farming, 62–3, 78–9, 101 Firestone, Richard, 126, 127 fi ring, of landscape, 4, 102 fi ssion-track dating see dating methods Flannery, Tim, 12, 60, 62, 79, 85–6, 93–4, 128–31, 134, 145 Fleming, John, 194 Flick, Barbara, 194 Flinders Ranges, 94 Flores, 166–71, 176 Fogel, Marilyn, 74, 76–7 Folsom, New Mexico, 106–7, 135 Forster, Peter, 152 454 Life Sciences, 186, 187 FOXP2 gene, 185–6 fractionation, 74, 75–6 250 Frank the Diprotodon, 80–94 Franklin, Governor, 206 Franklin, Lady, 206 Franklin, Rosalind, 191 Fraser, Rebecca, 78 Friis, Louise see Dunn, Louise Fullagar, Richard, 22–5, 85, 88, 90–1, 130, 132–3 fundamentalist Christians, 195–6 Gagan, Michael, 77 Gainey site, Michigan, 127 Galbraith, Rex, 25 Galton, Francis, 193 gene patenting, 197 gene therapy, 199 genetic markers, 197–8 genetics, 147, 162–5, 184–7, 191 Genographic Project, 188–90, 196–204 genomes, 117, 118, 120, 147, 148, 184–7, 199 see also Genographic Project; Human Genome Diversity Project genomics, 190, 191, 199 Genyornis newtoni, extinction of, 60, 66–79, 83, 103 Georgia, 160, 171, 180 Gidjingarli people, 21 Gillespie, Richard, 11, 37, 41, 46, 89–92, 108, 112, 148, 217 glaciation, 51–4, 55, 107, 123–4 goannas, 68, 81 Golding, William, 187 Gonzalez, Silvia, 105–7, 106 Goyder Channel, 69 gracility, 43, 145–6 Grayson, Donald, 132, 133 Great Lakes, North America, 107, 124 Great Rift Valley, 55, 160 Greater Australia, 56 Grimshaw, Peter, 28–9 The BONE READERS Griqua people, 215 Groningen Laboratory, 38 Grotte du Renne, France, 183–4 Groves, Colin, 145, 149, 157, 161, 171 Grün, Rainer, 11, 14, 41–2, 44, 94, 208 Guidon, Niede, 109 Gulf Stream, 124 Gypsum Cave, Nevada, 114–16 Haberle, Simon, 216 Hamada, Tatsuji, 27 Hanson, Pauline, 145, 192 haplogroups, 198 Hatch, Hal, 75 Haynes, Gary, 132 Haynes, Vance, 93, 127, 131–2, 135 Hays, James, 53 Head, John, 20 Head, Lesley, 22, 129 Heinrich events, 55 Hell Gap, Wyoming, 107 Hellstrom, John, 101 Henneberg, Maciej, 144, 172, 173, 175, 176 Henry Wellcome Ancient Biomolecules Centre, 118 HGDP-CEPH, 195 high pressure liquid chromotography, 72 high-throughput sequencers, 187 Ho, Simon, 120 Ho, Tong-Yun (Tommy), 112 hobbit see Homo fl oresiensis Hodder, Ian, 12 Holocene epoch, 18, 19, 40 Homo antecessor, 180 Homo cepranensis, 181 Homo erectus, 144–5, 156–7, 159–62, 165, 170–1, 176, 196 Homo ergaster, 157, 157, 160–1, 171, 181 Homo fl oresiensis, 144, 145, 166, 171–2, 175 Homo georgicus, 180, 181 Homo habilis, 155, 155–7, 171, 176 Homo heidelbergensis, 144, 181, 182, 186 Homo neanderthalensis, 178, 180, 181 Homo petraloniensis, 181 Homo sapiens arrival in India, 162–3 development of in Africa, 154 dispersal from Africa, 152, 162–3 genes critical to speech and language, 185 genetic blueprint of, 190, 199 genome compared to chimpanzee, 186 meets Neanderthal man, 178 skull of, 180 whether Indonesian hobbit is, 171, 173 Homo steinheimensis, 181 Hookina Creek, South Australia, 94 Hope, Geoff, 100–1 Hope, Jeannette, 92 Horton, David, 91, 112, 129 Howard, John, 209 Hua, Quan, 207 Hublin, Jean-Jacques, 180, 183 Hughes, Alun, 153 HUGO see Human Genome Organisation Human Genome Diversity Project, 188–90, 192–5 Human Genome Organisation, 190 Human Genome Project, 190–1 Huon Peninsula coral terraces, 48, 49, 52, 53, 56 Huxley, Thomas, 178, 179 hydrogen isotopes, 53 hydroxyproline, 112 IBM, 188, 196 Ice Ages, 53, 55, 84, 121, 127, 163 Index ice cores, 40, 53, 54 ICS see International Commission on Stratigraphy Imbrie, John, 53 India, 162–3 indigenous people, genome of, 188–204 Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism, 188–9, 202 Indonesia descendants of Homo erectus, 145 discovery of hobbits, 144, 166–77 discovery of Java Man, 161 informed consent, 197 ‘inherited age’, 25 INQUA see International Union for Quaternary Research Institute of Anatomy, Canberra, 206, 208 intelligent design, 196 interglacial, 53, 55, 100, 164 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 138 International Commission on Stratigraphy, 18 International Union for Quaternary Research, 18, 103, 159 International Union of Pre- and Proto-historic Sciences, 206 interstadial, 53, 55, 100, 164 isoleucine, 72 Jacob, Teuku, 161, 169, 172–5 Java, 159, 160 Jennings, Joe, 27 Jinmium rock shelter, 22, 23, 25, 47, 85, 173 Johnson, Beverley, 76 Johnson, Chris, 95 Joides Resolution (ship), 99 Jones, Cheryl, 13 Jones, Rhys, 19–21, 29–30, 62–3, 82–3, 86, 101 Jones, Robert, 80–1 Joulni sites, Lake Mungo, Kakadu National Park, 20, 64–5 Kamminga, Johan, 12 Kangaroo Island, 94, 171 kangaroos, 68, 84, 86 Kawau Island, 138 Keep River, 22 ‘keeping places’, 207, 209, 218, 219 Kennewick Man, 13, 197, 201, 213, 214 Kenniff Cave, Queensland, 10–11, 31 Kenya, 157 Kershaw, Peter, 98–100 Key, Con, 29 Khoe Khoe lady, 215 Khoisan people, 204, 215–16 Klasies River, South Africa, 158 Kleine Fledhofer Grotte, 184 Komodo dragons, 168 Koobi Fora formation, 157 Kow Swamp skeletons, 43, 139, 145, 148, 206–7 Kromdraai, 153 Kudjal Yolgah Cave, Western Australia, 83 La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal, 179, 182 La Jolla Laboratory, 39 La Trobe University, 189 Lachlan River, 28 Lake Arumpo, 28 Lake Callabonna, 61 lake cores, 100–1 Lake Eyre, 67–74 Lake Frome, 72 Lake Garnpung, 28, 30 Lake George, 100 Lake Keilambete, 28 Lake Leahgur, 28, 30 Lake Malawi, Africa, 164 Lake Menindee, 47 Lake Mulurulu, 28, 30 Lake Mungo, 1, 3, 11, 28–31, 42, 47, 139, 218 251 Lake Outer Arumpo, 7, 28, 36 Lake Tanganyika, 164 Lake Xere Wapo, 100 Lalueza-Fox, Carles, 185 Lambeck, Kurt, 55 Lancefield Swamp, Victoria, 87, 91–2 language, in Neanderthals, 185 Larson, Susan, 176 Laslett, Geoff, 25 Last Glacial Maximum, 53 Late Pleistocene, 63, 87, 93, 114, 132 Late Stone Age, 204 Laurentide ice sheet, 127 Leakey, Louis, 108 Leakey, Mary, 108 Leakey, Meave, 196 Legacy of an Ice Age 2006 conference, Mungo, 219 Lehner site, Arizona, 107 Levallois core technology, 158 Levitt, Norman, 211, 213 Lewontin, Richard, 196 Liang Bua cave, Indonesia, 167, 168–9, 172 Libby, Willard, 32, 38, 111 Liebelt, Belinda, 13 Lincoln Cave, South Africa, 158 Lindenmeier site, Colorado, 107 Little Foot, 155 LM3 see Mungo Man Longin, Robert, 34 Longstaff, Simon, 188, 196, 200, 202 Lovell-Jones, Christine, 200 Loy, Tom, 88 Lucy, dating of, 154, 155, 175 luminescence dating of Bradshaw rock art, 20 of Cathedral Cave samples, 87 compared with calibrated radiocarbon dating, 40, 46–7, 92 discovery of, 18 252 luminescence dating (continued) of Frank the Diprotodon, 82, 83, 87, 89 of hobbits, 171 of Jinmium samples, 25 of Kow Swamp skeletons, 148 of megafauna extinction, 82 of Mungo sites, 43–4, 47 of Nullarbor Plain samples, 102 of Punung deposits, 159 Roberts offers to use, 21 of sand grains, 22, 23, 71, 105 of sand samples, 71 technique of optically stimulated luminescence, 17 thermoluminescence, TL, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25 of tools in Andhra Pradesh, 163 of Valsequillo Basin site, 105 Lundelius, Ernest, 63, 66, 83 Lydekker’s Line, 56 Lynch’s Crater, 98–100, 103 Mabo case, 191 McBryde, Isabel, 36, 41 Maddock, Ken, 209 Magee, John, 35–6, 68–74, 78–9, 84, 86, 88, 103, 130 Magela Creek, 20 magnetic field, of Earth, 170 Majuangu, stone tools found at, 160 Makapansgar, 153 Malakunanja II rock shelter, 21, 25, 44 Mammoth Cave, Margaret River, 63, 66, 83 mammoths, 61, 134, 185 ‘Man the Hunter’ conference, 31–2 Mansell, Michael, 212 Maori, 139, 209 Maree, 68–9 marsupial lion, 61, 68, 101 The BONE READERS Martin, Paul, 62, 93, 97, 110, 115, 128, 132, 133–4 mastodons, 134 Mata Menge, Flores, 170, 175, 176 Max Planck Institute, 118, 186 Mazák, Vratislav, 157 MC1R gene, 184 MC-LA-ICPMS see multi-collector laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry Mead, Jim, 82, 92 Meadowcroft rock shelter, 108 Meehan, Betty, 21 megafauna, extinction of in the Americas, 13, 61, 110–11, 114–16, 128, 132 ‘blitzkrieg’ hypothesis, 9, 12, 59–66, 79, 86, 93–7, 110–11, 129, 133–4, 217 climate change hypothesis, 59, 62–3, 73–4, 78, 86, 88, 93, 100, 121 dating of, 73–4, 78–9, 82–94 in Eurasia, 60–1 extraterrestrial strikes hypothesis, 126 Nullarbor Plain studies, 101–3 ‘sitzkrieg’ hypothesis, 62, 63, 66, 86 speed of extinction, 96 symposium at Naracoorte, 136–8 Megalania prisca, 68, 81 Mellars, Paul, 180, 182–3 Meltzer, David, 82, 92, 132 Merrilees, Duncan, 62 meteorite, 31, 54, 125–6 Mexico, 105, 106 microcephaly, 172–3 Micronesians, 197 Miescher, Friedrich, 191 Milankovitch, Milutin, 51–2, 53, 54, 55 Miller, Gifford, 68–74, 76, 78–9, 84, 86, 88, 103, 130, 217 miscoding lesions, 120 ‘missing links’, 146 Mitchell, John, 197 Mitchell, Junette, 1–4, 219 Mitchell, Thomas, 61 mitochondrial DNA, 119–20, 147–9, 163–5, 184, 197 Mitochondrial Eve, 198 moa, 60, 134 modelling, of populations, 96–7, 121, 139 Modjokerto child skull, 160 molecular biology, 191 monitor lizards, 168 Monte Verde site, Chile, 109, 132 Monti Lessini, Italy, 184 Moondyne Cave, Western Australia, 83 Morwood, Mike, 20, 23, 159, 161, 166, 169–75 Mosimann, James, 97 Mount Kelimutu, 168 Mount Moffatt Station, Queensland, 10 Mousterian culture, 183 mtDNA, 119–20, 147–9, 163–5, 184, 197 Müller, Wolfgang, 208 Mullis, Kary, 119 multi-collector laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, 94 multi-regional model, of human evolution basic hypothesis, impact of discovery of hobbits on, 167, 172, 175 impact of discovery of Mungo Man on, 43, 144–52 interpretation of Jinmium dating results, 24–5 view of Neanderthals, 178–9, 181–3 Mulvaney, John, 10–13, 28–9, 35, 41, 43, 207–8 Index Mungo Child, 9, 219 Mungo Festival, 3, Mungo Lady burial site, 10 dating of, 1–2, 27, 32, 34, 41–2, 91 discovery of, 3, 7, 31 gracility of, 146 Mungo Man analysis of, 42 burial site, 10, 42–4 dating of, 2, 42, 42–4, 143 discovery of, 27 DNA analysis of, 151 gracility of, 146 mtDNA of, 148 Mungo National Park, Mungo sites, 26–31, 35–6 Mungo Statement (1989), 25–6 Mungo Visitor’s Information Centre, Murray Black, George, 206 Murray Springs, Arizona, 127 Murray, Tim, 13 Murray-Darling Basin, 72–3 Musée de l’Homme, Paris, 215 Museum of Victoria, 205, 207 mutations, 165 Mutthi Mutthi people, 2, 219 Naracoorte, 87, 136 Naracoorte Caves, South Australia, 86–7, 131, 136 Nariokotome boy, 157 National Centre for Archaeology (Indonesia), 166 National Geographic Society, 188, 196 National Museum of Australia, 29, 59, 208, 212, 218 Native Americans, 14, 61, 132, 201, 210, 213–14 native title, 22 Natural History Museum (UK), 205–7, 210–12 Nauwalabila I, 22, 25, 44 NBS19, 77 Neanderthal Genome Project, 184, 185–6 Neanderthals, 41, 43, 61, 163, 177–87, 213, 216–17 Nenana culture, 109 Neogene, 18 Neolithic European, 208 ‘new archaeology’, 11–12 New Caledonia, 100–1 New Guinea, 56, 82 New Guineans, DNA comparisons, 164–5 Ngandong, 159, 161, 162 Ngarrabullgan, 19 Ngyiampaa people, 2, 219 Niah Cave, Borneo, 159 noble gases, 126 Nombe rock shelter, New Guinea, 87, 92 Nothrotheriops shastense, 114 Nullarbor Plain studies, 101–3 Ocean Drilling Program, 99 O’Connell, Jim, 47 O’Connor, Sue, 56 ODP-820 marine sediment core, 99 OIS, 52–3, 55, 121 Oldowan tools, 108, 157, 180, 181 Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, 108 Olley, Jon, 43 Omo-Kibish, Ethiopia, 158 Onge people, 162 optically stimulated luminescence dating see luminescence dating ornaments, Neanderthal, 183–4 otoliths, 30–1 Ötzi the Iceman, 208 ‘out of Africa’ theory basic hypothesis, early Homo species in fi rst dispersal, 180 253 genome project supports theory of, 195, 198 impact of discovery of hobbits on, 167 impact of discovery of Mungo Man on, 43, 143–52 on routes of dispersal from Africa, 163 Wells on evidence for theory of, 203 Owen, Richard, 61, 81 oxygen isotope stages, 52–3, 55, 121 oxygen-16 and oxygen-18, 52, 53, 102 Pääbo, Svante, 118, 167, 184, 185, 186, 187 Paakantji people, 1, 2–3, 219 palaeomagnetic dating see dating methods Palmer, Norman, 209 Palmer report, 211 Palorchestes, 87 Pappin, Mary, Papua New Guinea, 48 ‘partial articulation’, 137 particle accelerators, 44 Partridge, Tim, 154, 155 Pate, Donald, 87 patents, 191, 197 PCR see polymerase chain reaction PDB see Peedee belemnite pedomorphic dwarfi ng, 171 Pedra Furada, 109 Peedee belemnite, 77 peer review, 15 Peking Man, 161 Penõn Woman III, 106 PEP carboxylase, 76 Petraglia, Michael, 163 Phascolonus gigas, 68, 102 photosynthesis, 75–6 phylogenetics, 149 Pillans, Brad, 18–19, 101 Pirro Nord, Italy, 180 Pithecanthropus erectus, 161 Pleistocene epoch, 18, 19, 27, 39, 96, 120, 159 254 Ples, Mrs, 154–5 Plesianthropus, 155 Plio-Pleistocene hominin fossils, 153 Poinar, Hendrik, 115 Polach, Henry, 32–4, 41, 45, 50, 91 politics, of peer review, 15 pollen grains, 97–9, 103 Polo, Marco, 162 polymerase chain reaction, 119, 150, 204 Polynesians, 197 population genetics, 165, 189, 199 population modelling, 96–7, 121, 139 Port Augusta, 77–8 postmodernism, 12, 20–1, 195–6 potassium-argon dating see dating methods Prescott, John, 11 Price, David, 22, 23 Prideaux, Gavin, 86, 87, 101, 102 processual archaeology, 11–12 Procoptodon, 68, 84, 102 publication, of scientific papers, 13 pumice, 160–1 Punung deposit, 159, 161 Pupoides adelaidae, 101 Puritjarra rock shelter, 21 Qafzeh Cave, Levant, 158 quaggas, 118 Quaternary, 14, 18, 53, 54–5, 60 Quaternary Extinction Symposium, 73, 92, 136–8 Quaternary research, funding of, 216 quolls, 87 radioactivity, 18 radiocarbon dating barrier, 20, 33, 46, 82, 99, 138–9 of bones from Rancho La Brea tar pits, 112 calibration, 40–1, 41 The BONE READERS of charcoal, 25, 36–7, 63, 82, 88–92, 98, 100 compound-specific, 112, 138 of coral, 50–1 development of, 12, 31, 32 dispersal of modern humans, 182 of dung balls, 115 of Egyptian sites, 37–8 of Frank the Diprotodon, 82 how it works, 32–3 of Indonesian hobbits, 171 of Lancefield megafauna, 91 at Lynch’s Crater, 99 Meadowcroft rock shelter controversy, 108 of megafauna bones, 82, 88, 91, 92–3, 111–12 of Mungo burials, 10, 32, 41, 148 by oil companies, 63 of shells, 36, 105 using accelerator mass spectrometry, 19, 44–7, 54, 77, 108, 112, 148, 181–2 of Willandra sites, 26, 35–7, 41 Ramsay, Edward, 205 Rancho La Brea tar pits, 111–12 Ranger uranium mine, 20 rare earth elements, 90 recombination, 119 REEs see rare earth elements Renfrew, Colin, 196 Renne, Paul, 105–6 repatriation, of human remains, 8–9, 26, 143, 204, 205–16, 219 research funding, 216 Rift Valley, Ethiopia, 55, 160 Rinca, 168 Ritchie, Alex, 80–1 Riwi, 47 Roberts, Margaret, 174 Roberts, Richard, 17–8, 20–3, 25, 43–4, 60, 66, 79, 81–2, 85–9, 94, 97, 102–3, 137, 159, 161, 171, 182 Robinson, George, 206 Robinson, John, 154 robusticity, 145 Roche, 186 Römpler, Holger, 185 Röntgen, Wilhelm Conrad, 18 Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody, 192 Royal Society of Tasmania, 206 rubisco enzyme, 76 Rural Advancement Foundation International, 195 Russia, Tunguska explosion, 125 Ruteng, 167, 168 Rutherford, Ernest, 45 Sahara Desert, 163 Sahul, 56, 159 sand grain analysis see luminescence dating Sanger, Frederick, 191 Sangiran fossils, 145, 160 Saptomo, Wahyu, 166–7 Schneider, Alan, 214 Schouten, Peter, 174 scientific method, 12 sea level, 24, 48–9, 49, 51, 55–6, 108, 170 sediment analysis, 52, 71 Selwyn Symposium, 217 Seton rock shelter, 87, 92 Shackleton, Nicholas, 53 Shapiro, Beth, 118 Shasta sloths, 114, 115 Shawcross, Wilfred, 11, 35, 36, 43 shell dating see radiocarbon dating shell middens, 2, 14, 25, 34–6 Shoemaker-Levy comet, 127 Siberia, 54, 61, 105, 110, 118, 125, 177 Index Sicily, 171 Silberberg Grotto, South Africa, 155 Sima del Elefante cave, Spain, 181 Singh, Gurdip, 100 single primer extension, 204 ‘sitzkrieg’, on megafauna, 62, 63, 66, 86 Skhul Cave, Levant, 158 Slack, Roger, 75 sloths, 114–16, 133 Smith, Claire, 200, 206, 211 Smith, Laurajane, 19, 21, 200, 210 Smith, Mike, 21, 82, 86 Soejono, Radien Pandji, 169, 172 Solo River, Java, 161 South Africa, 153–4, 158, 164, 215 South America, pre-Clovis occupation, 109 South Australian Museum, 205 South-east Asia, 159, 160, 161, 164 Southern Oscillation Index, 100 speleothem dating, 39, 87 SPEX, 204 Spooner, Nigel, 23, 24, 42, 43, 44 sporopollenin, 98 Stafford, Tom, 109, 112 Steadman, David, 115 Stegodon, 168, 171 Sterkfontein cave, 153–4, 156–7 Stevenson, Janelle, 100–1 Sthenurus, 92 Stockton, Jim, 35 Stolen Generations, 192 Stone, Tim, 148 Stoneking, Mark, 147 Storm, Paul, 159 stratigraphy, 18, 27, 36, 43, 50, 52, 83, 88, 107, 154 Stringer, Chris, 149, 151, 160, 178, 182, 184–6, 207, 212–3 Suess, Hans, 39 Sumatra, 163 Sunda, 159 supercontinents, 55 Surovell, Todd, 134 Sutikna, Thomas, 169 Swaartkrans, 153 Sweden, 211 Swisher, Carl, 161, 162 synchrotron radiation, 216 Tambar Springs, 84 tammar wallabies, 138 Tasmania, 8, 10, 39, 48–9, 56, 81, 159, 206, 213 Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre, 205, 209, 212 Taung child, 155, 175, 214–15 teeth, dating of, 102, 105, 119, 161, 163, 166–7, 217 thermal ionisation mass spectrometry, 51 thermoluminescence see luminescence dating thermophiles, 150 Thompson, Richard, 106 thorium-230, 50–1 Thorne, Alan, 9, 24, 26, 29, 31, 42–3, 64, 143–6, 148–9, 151, 162, 172–5, 183, 208, 219 3TTGs, 2, 8, 9, 14, 218–19 thylacine, cloning of, 64 Thylacoleo carnifex, 61, 68, 81, 84, 87, 101 Tight Entrance Cave, Western Australia, 83, 217 Timor, 170 TIMS see thermal ionisation mass spectrometry TL see luminescence dating Toba volcano, Sumatra, 163 Tobias, Phillip, 153, 155, 214–16 Tocheri, Matthew, 176 Torres Strait, 56 tree kangaroos, 102 tree ring calibration curve, 38–9 Tree Ring Laboratory, 38 255 trepang, 168 Tridacna gigas, 50 Trinil, 161 Trueman, John, 149 Truganini, 206 Tuck, Geoffrey, 96 Tunguska explosion, Russia, 125, 126 Tuniz, Claudio, 19–20, 23, 25, 54, 60, 168 Turnbull, Paul, 209 Turney, Chris, 46, 99, 100, 171, 182, 217 Ucko, Peter, 206 Underhill, Peter, 147 United Nations, 194, 201 United States, repatriation of remains from, 211 University of Arizona Laboratory, 46 University of Edinburgh, 208 University of Melbourne, 206 uranium-234, 50–1 uranium-series dating see dating methods Urey, Harold, 52 Ussher, James, 38 Valsequillo Basin, Mexico, 105 ‘Vampire’ project, 188–204 van Huet, Sanja, 91 Van Oosterzee, Penny, 175 Veeh, Herb, 50, 51, 53 Venter, Craig, 187, 191 Verhoeven, Theodor, 170, 171 Vesuvius eruption, dating of, 108, 161 Vi-80 (Neanderthal), 186 Victoria Fossil Cave, 84 Vindija Cave, Croatia, 184 Waguespack, Nicole, 134 Waitt Family Foundation, 188 Waitt, Ted, 188 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 55 Wallace’s Line, 55 Walls of China, Lake Mungo, 1, 10, 35 256 watercraft, early use of, 160 Waters, Michael, 109 Watkins, Joe, 132 Watson, James, 187, 191, 193 Webb, Steve, 148, 160 Wells, Rod, 94, 136 Wells, Spencer, 188, 189, 196, 202–3 Wentworth Group of Concerned Scientists, 130 Westaway, Kira, 159, 161–2, 171 Westaway, Michael, 208 Wet Cave, South Australia, 87 Wiedemann, Eilhard, 18 Wilkins, Maurice, 191 Willandra Creek, 28 Willandra Lakes, 27–30, 31, 73, 145, 148, 219 The BONE READERS Willandra Lakes Hominid see Mungo Man Willandra Lakes Region World Heritage Area, 1–3, 10, 25, 29 Willandra Research Publication Workshop, 25–6 Williams Point, 69 Williams, Robyn, 60, 64 Williams, Tammy, 196 Wilson, Allan, 147, 189 Wolpoff, Milford, 149, 182, 183, 185 wombats, 68, 77–8, 87 Wonambi, 68 Woodford, James, 22, 23 Working Group on Human Remains in Museum Collections, 209 World Archaeological Congress, 206, 211, 213–14 World Heritage Sites Cradle of Humankind, 153 Willandra Lakes Region, 1–3, 10, 25, 29 Wrangel Island, 61 Wright, Richard, 80–1 Wroe, Stephen, 85, 93, 130–1, 132–3, 217 Wyckoff, Ralph, 111 X chromosomes, 197 x-rays, 18, 216 Y chromosomes, 147, 164–5, 197–8 Yokoyama, Yuji, 162 Younger Dryas, 103, 112, 123–4, 126–7 Yukon sites, 117–18 Zilhão, João, 179, 183–5 Zygomaturus trilobus, 68, 84, 86, 87 ... blank The BONE READERS Atoms, genes and the politics of Australia’s deep past CLAUDIO TUNIZ, RICHARD GILLESPIE & CHERYL JONES First published in 2009 Copyright © Claudio Tuniz, Richard Gillespie and. .. Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Tuniz, C (Claudio) The bone readers : atoms, genes and the politics of Australia’s deep past / Claudio Tuniz, Richard Gillespie and Cheryl Jones. .. from other sites In an exchange in the literature, archaeologist Sandra Bowdler accused the team of 22 The BONE READERS ‘bullyspeak’, and said of an exposition of the method for estimating the