Abele-and-Graham-Bilingual-Education-Bibliography-FINAL-MAR-24

1 Annotated Bibliography Bilingual Education Frances Abele and Katherine Graham March 23, 2010 Agbo, Seth A “Decentralization of First Nations Education in Canada: Perspectives on Ideals and Realities on Indian Control of Indian Education.” Interchange 33.3 (2002): 281 Agbo’s article contends schools for Aboriginal children will remain ‘mediocre’ in quality unless there is devolution that entails the empowerment of First Nations communities to provide education suited to each community In addition, decentralization needs to meet three conditions First, resolution of constraints/contradictions internal to decentralization, second, Aboriginal scholars and First Nations school authorities need to enable change through frameworks of local control, and third, First Nations communities and federal authorities need to identify the key symbolic and structural characteristics of decentralizing First Nations schools Agbo offers a set of interrelated focus points that examine the effects of local control, lack of clarity in devolution procedures, and unclear educational pedagogies within Aboriginal frameworks Agbo posits that local control must empower Aboriginal students by intricately linking school governance with pedagogy (Goddard & Shields, 1997), and that under current practices, devolution does not fully benefit most Aboriginal communities The article offers an overview of policy that led to local control It also offers a concise presentation of the features of decentralization of education, including the importance of parental influence and the school’s responsiveness to student needs He provides a thoughtful analysis on cultures of learning, providing references to additional articles on the importance of culture, language and heritage teachings, and value differences for/of First Nations children, questioning its efficacy in situations where a majority of teachers are non-native teachers of First Nations (Ontario),and concluding that to meet the needs of First Nations, traditional and technological learning should be balanced by examining how communal bonds of Aboriginal identities, shaped by communal language, ethnicity, and culture affect knowledge and learning Agbo analyzes the reality of local control through a review of research – devolution has resulted in a transfer of power, but not a change in orientation of the management of power: most First Nations communities retained the governance, administrative and curricular practices of the federal government Advocates for the politicization of decentralization, Abgo argues, overlooked or undervalued its educational impact on Aboriginal students The lack of transfer of knowledge, with power, the vulnerability of schools to local politics, the need for accountability and efficiency within the administration of the school, and inconsistency in quality of staff, all have effect on the educational framework, and student success Agbo briefly details policy implications for decentralization; among many recommendations in his conclusion, he argues that if devolution is to benefit teaching and learning, then band councils need a systematic approach to collaborative decision making that allows appropriate participation of parents, teachers and students, that objectives concerning education (curriculum, achievement, standards and policy formulation/implementation) need to be determined by politicians, policy makers and First Nations people In addition, First Nations com munities should be able to clearly identify their management tasks and be able to develop a way to relate how resources are distributed to student learning priorities Communities need to be aware of an underlying philosophy of education, and be able to manage control in the context of the expansion of the philosophy Andersen, Catharyn and Alana Johns “Labrador Inuit: speaking into the Future.” Inuit Studies 29:1-2 (2005) This paper discusses the issue of language loss in northern Labrador Inuttitut Like many communities across northern Canada, Labrador is facing the possible complete loss of Inuktitut, demonstrated by the fact that almost no children speak it as a first language any longer In this paper we outline a number of linguistic properties which make Labrador Inuttitut and a related dialect spoken in Rigolet distinct from neighbouring dialects of Inuktitut We also report on a number of initiatives taken up by community organizations, school and individuals in their growing efforts to reverse language shift These include a language survey, dictionaries, youth camps, a language nest, etc Anonby, S.J “Reversing Language Shift: Can Kwak’wala Be Revived?” Master’s Thesis, University of North Dakota, 1997 Anonby’s thesis is an examination of reversing language shift (language revival) of the Kwak’wala language, which is a common language between 12 Indigenous tribes in coastal British Columbia Anonby gives an overview of the Kwak’wala history and contact with white settlers; he identifies reasons for language decline: variation in dialect, colonisation and marginalization by English, and perceptions that English offered social mobility and economic opportunities These factors led to linguistic and social suicide as a decision to enable personal survival for their children and themselves He situates the Kwak’wala people in their current reality – many located in urban centres, as well as in more remote and smaller communities on Vancouver Island and argues that the Kwak’wala are in the midst of a profound social change, including language shift from Kwak’wala to English Anonby focuses on key Kwak’wala communities, and efforts to reverse the effects of language shift, but his research indicates that despite programs of language education, and the perception that it is important for continuation of culture, the language is declining Anonby directs his research toward language projects that were or are similarly positioned to Kwak’wala, and offers some conclusions regarding essential components of language projects Elements to observe when evaluating projects are numbers (increases in number of people who use the language, or are persuaded back to it), expansion of ‘domain’ of use (household, work, religion, government, education), and a combination of numerical increases and domain, which results in ‘language spread’ (the more using it, the more domains the language will be used in) Anonby provides an interesting and useful examination of a variety of cultures that were experiencing cultural and/or linguistic decline In all cases where their language revival was successful, these cultures shared the features of population (large language/population base), ethnic strength (“we” vs “them”), promoted literacy in the language, provided immersion classes for children, and used the language in the media In addition, notes Anonby, language projects are most successful when they are consistent with the direction in which social forces are guiding language behavior He applies these findings to proposal for the revival of Kwak’wala, and divides the proposal into the categories of community and education, focusing on roles and how to implement the features of population, ethnicity, literacy, immersion, and media He uses stages seven to of Joshua Fishman’s study of reversing language shift (1991) as relevant to the Kwak’wala, and cautions that they need to be approached in an order and phasing that will allow maximum possibilities of success First, the majority of Kwak’wala speakers are socially integrated and ethnolinguistically active (and beyond child-bearing age) Second, it is crucial that youth, family neighbourhood and community are linked Third, the establishment of voluntary Kwak’wala literacy schools Fourth, Kwak’wala in the regular school system To move toward language revitalization, Anonby identifies that the Kwak’wala must have a common vision, which includes clear reasons for reversing language shift (economic, identity, rewards/initiatives) and a clear plan about how to it He outlines carefully how and in what order the community, families, and schools could work on the essential elements of successful language revival, concluding that: 1) the majority of the Kwakwaka’wakw population must feel a strong sense of ethnicity and solidarity; this must be a community, not educational, endeavour The work and price necessary to achieve this must be done willingly by the Kwakwaka’wakw families 2) An immersion environment is also community based, and begins by establishing Kwak’wala-only zones (homes, neighbourhood) Only after students have received immersion support in their homes will it be possible to begin immersion in the schools 3) The stabilization of immersion environments will enable schools and literacy groups to focus on immersion as well, creating an environment where reading and writing Kwak’wala can be done regularly The community supports this by continuing to create opportunities for Kwak’wala use in all aspects of daily life 4) Books must be available for the newly literate population to read, and would give Kwak’wala prestige to be in the media The community plays the central role, as it will consume and produce the material; teachers and students would use and produce material in a school setting Chapter of Anonby’s thesis outlines the implementation of his ideas in a Kwak’wala community (Alert Bay) It is a narrative approach that records community responses, at all levels, to his ideas, and the strategies that the community and education system adopted, or did not adopt, to enable language revival Auditor General of Canada Chapter in Report to the House of Commons: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada: Elementary and Secondary Education Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2000 The Auditor General’s report addresses three main issues First, that INAC cannot demonstrate it has met its main objectives to assist First Nations individuals on reserve to meet their educational needs and goals As a linked point, there is no assurance that First Nations students are receiving culturally appropriate material, closing the ‘education gap’ of First Nations students has been slow, and parity in educational achievement with other Canadians set back Second, INAC’s role in education and frameworks of accountability need articulation; additionally, it needs to take into greater account socioeconomic factors and cultural and special needs of First Nations children as factors that can affect success in education Third, education will be impacted by pressures of technology, population increases on reserves and changes in technology and provincial education programs; INAC needs to address the complexity and urgency of the situation and respond to issues with action Bainbridge, John Canadian Journal of Education 31(3) 2008: 761-766 Bainbridge comments on Gallagher-Mackay ‘s review of T Berger (2006) arguing that Gallagher-Mackay took too narrow a view in her piece critiquing Berger’s 2006 report Berger, Bainbridge argues, was advocating for bilingualism, not as a “facet of a larger school program,” but “because it would inevitably place the schools in the hands of Inuit and this solution would profoundly change the whole culture of the education system.” Bainbridge points out that the system is not currently culturally relevant and that by dropping out students are “voting with their feet.” Bainbridge stresses that Berger built his argument on previous reports Qulliq Quvvariarlugu and Aajiiqatigiingiq Moreover, the purpose of Berger’s report was to break down the federal government’s defense that they had no jurisdiction (and thus no responsibility) over social and education policies in Nunavut and that focusing on bilingualism was a way to this Berger’s strategy, Bainbridge suggests, was to show that the Government of Canada had a moral responsibility to support bilingual education like it did for the French majority in Quebec Bainbridge agrees with Gallagher-Mackay that the GN lacks the political will to address the core problems in the education system; the Department of Education’s biggest failure, he argues, is that it has opposed community involvement in education – “local control…is at least as important as the language of instruction in transforming the culture of the schools.” The author also stresses that while poverty may be a factor affecting student success, we should not underestimate the power of a strong sense of self-worth and goals for the future in this regard Increasing the number of Inuit teachers will help to improve students’ sense of self worth The necessary increase in Inuit teachers to achieve the objectives of bilingual education will require changes to the current training system, including changing the leadership in the training organizations and associated bodies Barnhardt, Ray “Creating a Place for Indigenous Knowledge in Education: The Alaska Native Knowledge Network.” in David A Gruenwald and Gregory A Smith, eds Place-Based Education in the Global Age: Local Diversity New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2008 Barnhardt examines the reintegration of Native knowledge systems into the school curriculum as a way to link student’s school learning with life learning out of school The intention has been to restore a ‘traditional sense of place’ while deepening the educational experience for all students What has been developed is a ‘pedagogy of place’ that teaches through culture, rather than about culture; students learn about the immediate places they inhabit, and their connection to the larger world The Alaskan Rural Systemic Initiative is a long term educational restoration initiative developed by Alaska Federation of Natives, in collaboration with the University of Alaska Fairbanks and with funding from the National Science Foundation Its aim is to document, through initiatives, the Indigenous knowledge systems of Alaska Native people, and develop curriculum and pedagogy that appropriately uses local knowledge and ways of knowing for incorporation into the formal education system The central component of AKRSI has been to find common ground and connection between interdependent and disparate systems: the Indigenous knowledge systems (local) and the formal education system (imported) The overall goal is to use the strengths of each system to boost the quality of education and improve the academic performance of students Barndhart offers a list of initiatives that have bolstered student success, and details the development of the Alaska Native Knowledge Network as a necessary addition to, and key element of, the AKRSI program It acts as a framework for documentation, analysis, dissemination and application of information about Indigenous knowledge systems and their relevance in the contemporary world It consists of a curriculum database, an extensive web site and listserv, and a publication production and distribution facility Barnhardt describes various initiatives of the ANKN, including science camps and fairs, a clearinghouse and database of curriculum resources applicable to Indigenous settings, and cultural atlases and training toward implementing a cultural atlas The training involves a CD-ROM/web site development project in which students research any aspect of their culture/community/region and assemble the information in a multimedia format through the use of technology) Barnhardt discusses, in relation to AKRSI, the emphasis and importance of creating stability and continuity in school professionals and personnel He describes how this has been done – in part through the preparation of qualified Alaska Native teachers and administrators, and engaging local, Native, expertise in the educational process He outlines how this has led to capacity building, and the development of Alaska Standards for Culturally Responsive Schools, which includes standards for students, educators, curriculum, schools and communities, and which guides schools and communities in appropriately integrating indigenous knowledge across all areas It emphasizes student experiences in and out of school by offering opportunities for students to engage in in-depth experiential learning in real world contexts Berger, Paul “Some Thoughts on Qallunaat Teacher Caring in Nunavut.” Journal of Teaching and Learning 4.2 (2007) The article is predicated on defining what constitutes ‘caring’ behavior of Qallunaat teachers in the context of working with Inuit, and given differences in ‘caring’ across cultures Berger contends that ‘true caring’ can only occur when the education system is informed by Inuit, and the teacher is committed to, and an advocate for, Inuit Author posits a move from a colonial, Qallunaat-based education system to an education system controlled by Inuit, and offers some historical perspective on the imposition of Qallunaat schooling, replacing Inuit traditional ways, negative social and community effects, and attempts to reform the educational system to include Inuit values (IQ), culture, language, and community input Berger argues that in the current context, true caring is impossible; he offers some ideas for teachers to be ‘caring’, and that true caring will occur after systemic change His ideas include: advocating for the values of Inuit (becoming un-neutral) as a way of de-colonizing, questioning curriculum and designing materials that enable the expression of Inuit values/culture/language (breaking rules), understanding cultural values that are tied to teaching methods, and adopting (after observation and consideration) more Inuitcentred teaching approaches (accepting learning role in different cultural environment), and studying Inuktitut and learning about Inuit culture and how it is demonstrated in the classroom These ideas are offered also as policy directions for change at a systemic level Berger, Paul “Urgent Need for More Inuktitut Instruction in Nunavut Schools.” Proceedings of the 15 th Inuit Studies Conference, Orality (Paris 2006) Using observations from years teaching in a community on Baffin Island, time observing in schools and research that involved interviewing a range of individuals representing a cross-section of the community about what they liked about schooling and what they’d like to see changed, (74 participants), Berger argues for stronger Inuktitut instruction in Nunavut schools, as well as greater emphasis on Inuit culture and way of being (IQ) to foster substantial bilingualism His findings indicate that community members fear the loss of Inuktitut and Inuit culture and are observing this loss in the education of a younger generation who are taught primarily in English (after Gr 5), or speak a ‘mix’ of English and Inuktitut, or who have incomplete knowledge of traditional Inuit ‘ways’ Tied to the community’s concerns, however, is the fact that English is valuable for success in educational endeavours and a professional life; its ubiquity is accepted but at the expense of strong foundational knowledge of Inuktitut and Inuit ways The article offers some counter perspectives such as increased English instruction in early grades, initial English instruction that leads to a greater emphasis on Inuktitut in high school, teachers who speak Inuktitut who can bridge language differences, and the inclusion of elders in school to teach language through traditional skills as a way of connecting youth with elders and preventing the loss of specific Inuktitut words that are directly related to Inuit ways (relationship to land and other core experiential/cultural activities) Berger argues for implementing the Bilingual Education Strategy (2004), early and greater exposure to English as a Second Language program, moving Inuktitut instruction into high school, and improving bilingual curriculum and resources, thus positively affecting teacher support and training Berger, Thomas Conciliator’s Final Report March 1, 2006 ‘The Nunavut Project’: Nunavut Vancouver: Craig E Jones, Counsel to the Concilliator, 2006 Motivated by long-standing disagreements over the implementation of the Nunavut land claim, the parties to the claim appointed Thomas Berger to: Review the background, current status and outstanding issues related to the update of the Contract; and Make recommendations to the parties on possible approaches, which could be taken to resolve the current impasse The stalled negotiations created particular uncertainty around two issues: funding levels for the Institutions of Public Government, and Canada’s responsibility with respect to Article 23, relating to Inuit levels of employment in the territorial public service Berger and his staffs met and consulted with a wide variety of stakeholders across Nunavut, in Ottawa and elsewhere in the country Berger’s interim report focused mainly on the issue of funding; the Implementation Panel’s final decisions were in line with the interim report and the issues of funding for IPGs has been resolved The final report focuses on the second issue – Inuit employment as per Article 23 of the land claim Berger notes that even though it may be “remarkable” that in only six years, 45% of public service employees are Inuit, this number falls far short of the 85% goal; and, he argues, the current figures are misleading If employment, by ethnicity, is broken down by position it is possible to see that Inuit hold the majority of administrative support positions, a large number of senior management positions and about half the executive positions; however, there are very few (about 25%) in the “professional” positions – the ones which inform policy making The report opens with a tailored overview of Eastern Arctic history, stressing the rapid changes and continued colonization experienced in the region during the post-war period leading up to the 1970s when “Inuit nationalism” sparked the journey toward the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement (NLCA) Berger also provides a brief summary of the NLCA process, highlighting in particular the roles and responsibilities of the parties to the claim, as determined by the Agreement Berger outlines the clauses of Article 23, noting the international attention they received, concluding that in essence the Article is “an equity clause for a majority.” Achieving a fully representative public service in Nunavut has proven to be a challenge Berger offers a demographic profile of Nunavut, touching on some of the major socio-economic challenges, including housing, health, the mixed economy, and education Notably, Berger ties the commitment in Article 23 to the issue of language and education, stating that: Achieving the objective of Article 23 means that the Inuit must over time occupy 85 per cent of the positions in all occupational groupings and at all grade levels in the public service, and this necessarily implies that Inuktitut must be the principal language of the workplace and that government services must be provided in Inuktitut The parties to the claim, therefore, cannot fulfill their obligations as set out in the claim, without also addressing the broader issues of language and education A new approach to implementation by the parties is necessary, according to Berger Berger’s recommendation is clear: a long-term plan to enhance bilingual education, as a way toward fulfilling Article 23, must be supported by the parties Bilingual Education Both English and Inuktitut are essential for Nunavut Inuit and to attaining the objectives of Article 23 In the case of English, as noted earlier, few Inuit occupy the professional positions on the government since most of these positions require post-secondary education Berger argues first that Nunavut needs a generation of professionals and it is unlikely that Inuit will receive this kind of education in the territory Secondly, given the scientific and technical nature of these positions, contact with other governments and with other professionals across Canada and elsewhere will be important Both of these realities necessitate proficiency in English In the case of Inuktitut, Berger stresses the importance of a strong first language foundation for academic success, including learning a second language Morover, since a segment of the population in Nunavut is unilingual, it is vital that the government offer services in Inuktitut as well as English Finally, language remains an important part of the preservation of Inuit culture; English, although viewed as important for working, is still viewed by some as the language of colonialism The Government of Nunavut’s 2000 Bathurst Mandate confirms its commitment to a bilingual society in Nunavut Berger summarizes several previous studies in bilingualism in Nunavut, namely Martin’s discussion paper on education, which criticizes the transition from Inuktitut to English as the language of instruction at the Grade level (the so-called “early exit immersion” model) stunting a child’s ability to master either language This model Berger argues is outdated and was inherited from the NWT Berger proposes two new models: Students are taught in both languages all the way through (the common European model) The immersion model, in which students are taught almost exclusively in their second language for a substantial period of time At present, the human resources and curriculum requirements of either of these models not exist Ultimately, Berger suggests that gradual introduction of English and longer retention of Inuktitut is necessary for strong bilingual education A commitment to bilingual education must exist at all levels starting in daycare and preschool all the way up to adult education Critical to the success of a new system is an increase in Inuit (and bilingual) teachers A commitment must also be made by families and communities to use Inuktitut at home Binda, K P and Calliou, Sharilyn Aboriginal Education in Canada Mississagua: Canadian Educators’ Press 2001 The purpose of this volume is to provide an introductory discussion of self-determination, devolution, selfrepresentation and decolonization in education (of First Nations people) within a broader contemporary discourse about residential school and human rights The editor notes that First Nations people are experiencing a transformative journey from “schooling as temporary foreign imprisonment to schooling as self-liberation” Each chapter examines different elements of the decolonization process drawing extensively on historical (although, she cautions not “researched”) events Calliou differentiates between decolonization theory and practice: theory is the “researched deconstruction of the institutionalized ideologies and structures… that sustain the unequal relationship between indigenous and non-indigenous peoples”; practice is the “researching, restaging and reclaiming of uniquely indigenous protocols, philosophies, ceremonies, ways of life ” recognizing that these are fluid and contextualized Chapter presents a historical overview of colonization the associated forces and structures predicated on the belief that liberation from these structures is not possible if one cannot “identify, name, and discuss” them The author questions whether and how to generate authentic indigenous education within existing “foreign” government frameworks and institutions Chapter argues for a locally controlled education system for First Nations people, recognizing that community-based decision-making has shown to be most successful and is critical for sustained positive outcomes As evidence, the author looks at traditional models of governance in indigenous communities Chapter focuses on the funding arrangements for First Nations schools in Canada and the asymmetrical power relations built into the fiscal relationship between First Nations governments and the Government of Canada Calls for more autonomy from government, yet more federal funding at the same time Chapter challenges the Eurocentric curricular foundation and proposes instead an holistic framework; recognizes that this will require major reform as the Euro and indigenous approaches are vastly different i.e Indigenous circular model (built on Medicine Wheel) does not fit with the European linear model Offers five recommendations to guide curricular reform: infuse curriculum with spirituality; recognize time and space; emphasize emotional growth; study relational dynamics; explore material and spiritual worlds Chapter focuses on language preservation as a basis for decolonization: “the public, active practice of languages is necessary for decolonization.” Must counteract the attack on Aboriginal languages and linguistic culture from residential school by improving language curriculum in today’s schools Chapter offers an argument for the reconsideration of the role of teachers as agents of dominant cultural reproduction and thus mutation of local knowledge Looks at different teaching programs over time and their relative successes and challenges Lessons for both indigenous and non-indigenous educators Chapter provides a description of Euro-western counseling models and their impact on some First Nations clients Argues that counseling must be holistic rather than rooted in the Euro-western health dichotomy Offers areas for decolonizing counseling Chapter focuses on early childhood education and early intervention for decolonization of the next generation A strong cultural and linguistic foundation is fundamental ECE must be rooted in indigenous philosophies, cultural practices and protocols or else this will be simply a repeat of residential schools Chapter suggests that there is a role for parents in evolving the reform of schooling in their communities The concept of parental involvement is strange because for many years parents were completely excluded from the education of their children (at school) Uses a case study of a Cree community and school Suggest adult education about the decolonization of schools may be useful for parents to understand the potential of schools and education for the next generations Chapter 10 classifies education services as current, emergent and needed Describes the transitional decolonization process and the associated process of the devolution of education to First Nations peoples using examples of services along this continuum Makes recommendations for next steps Chapter 11 explores the devolution and decolonization process through the lens of the urban Aboriginal experience in which there are fewer resources, more racism/discrimination and a smaller community of support Chapter 12 lessons for graduate students (indigenous and non-) about decolonizing research Blair, Heather A., and Billy Joe Laboucan “The Alberta Language Initiative and the Implication for Indigenous Languages.” Canadian Journal of Native Education 29.2 (2006): 206 Blair and Laboucan question a 2003 policy directive implementing a year compulsory nd language program in Alberta schools with respect to what it means in the context of Indigenous languages, teachers and their needs, students and language development, and the revitalization of Indigenous languages in Alberta They identify significant risk for language loss/death among those languages that are already endangered; most of the languages are not spoken at home They argue for language planning to occur alongside language policy development and implementation, and present an overview of what language planning entails The article presents the findings of a one-day symposium organized by an ad hoc group, interested in expressing needs and issues in response to language loss and the 2003 policy directive Blesse, Diann S “Aboriginal Teacher’s Perceptions of Classroom Learning Environments.” Master’s thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 1997 Blesse’s study of Aboriginal teacher’s experiences in the classroom (Northwest Territories) finds that they integrate traditional cultural values learned through their primary socialization experiences with their development of classroom learning environments The classroom environment reflects their culture and compliments community interactions Their goal is to draw compatibilities between classroom learning and the life learning outside of it Her study is based on questions: 1) Are there traditional Aboriginal socialization practices that influence Aboriginal teachers' perceptions, attitudes, and choices when developing their classroom learning environments? Is there a connection between Aboriginal teachers' articulated values and traditional teachings? Which aspects of Aboriginal teachers' classroom learning environments and the accompanying value-based rationales would they recommend be included in both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal teachers' training? Corson, D “Norway's Sámi Language Act: Emancipatory implications for the world's aboriginal peoples.” Language in Society, 24, pp.493-514, 1995 The article discusses the effect of the 1992 Sámi Language Act in Norway in revitalizing the Sámi culture The Act legitimized the native language in government operations, including the education system Using various ethnographic methodologies, the paper discusses: 1) The organizational structure of Sámi and regular schools to allow aboriginal languages 2) The influence of Sami cultural groups in Sámi and regular schools and 3) the balance of language used in instructional practices for Sámi students in the bilingual and bicultural context The author contents that the Act provided the necessary foundation for Sámi nation to become “agents of their own emancipation” In essence, language legitimization by the Act established a recognized political voice Second, localization of the Sámi language in six local districts enhanced local control of cultural conditions and circumstances The non-partisan Sámi Education council provides valuable supports to the local districts by mediating discords between Sámi and Norwegian culture as well as devising acceptable solution for Sámi nation Churchill asserts that the Norwegian experience is “no extraordinary concession for governments to governments to be making to groups of their citizens; devolving social policy decision-making in this way is no more than consistent with modern notions of social justice p.511” The Sámi model offers hope for cultural revitalization for other Aboriginal cultures subject to assimilation by a dominant culture Crago, Martha B “Communicative Interaction and Second Language Acquisition: An Inuit Example.” TESOL Quarterly 26.3 (1992): 487-505 The article focuses on the role of cultural context in the interactions between Inuit children, their families, and nonInuit teachers Crago looks at Inuit culture’s ways of using and learning languages, and argues that teaching strategies for 2nd language needs to be based on knowledge of cultural membership for Inuit children and that how language is taught and learned is central to communicating culturally Non-Inuit teachers need to be aware of ethnicism in their teaching (denial of a person’s cultural ways) Research focused on Inuit in the communities of Kangirsuk and Quaqtaq (Ungava Bay, Northern (arctic) Quebec) In Northern Quebec, all schools offer three languages: Inuktitut, English and French In the communities of Kangirsuk and Quaqtaq, Inuit culture and Inuktitut is taught from kindergarten until Gr 2, and from Gr until the end of high school courses are in English and taught primarily by Qallunaat However, Inuit culture is taught through some core courses, in Inuktitut, until the end of high school, comprising about a quarter of a student’s time in the beginning of high school to a fifth of a student’s time by the end of high school The article, through interview segments, outlines disparities between Inuit cultural norms and their expression in 2nd language situations, as well as generational differences within Inuit culture as expressed by children/grandchildren in social situations Value judgements by Qallunaat teachers, and expectations of behaviour based on Qallunaat norms are also revealed Crago outlines important differences that impact nd language learning and teaching Differences between Inuit culture and French/English cultures, the status of the child, and social structures of child-caring, methods of teaching and learning, and application of knowledge have an affect on learning a 2nd language The author suggests that culturally aware/congruent methods of teaching might include comprehension-based 2nd language learning programs (learning by listening), and cooperative, peer interactive activities (language learning from peers), but that they would need to be tested to maximize learning and minimize cultural loss Other ideas include using competencies gained in st language learning to learn the 2nd language, 1st language teachers teaching the 2nd language and using culturally relevant material to enable less of an adjustment to the 2nd language Davis, L.R Gaywish, and C VanEvery-Albert “Section One Editorial: Indigenous Methodologies.” Canadian Journal of Native Education 31.1 (2008): Very brief introduction to how Aboriginal academics use cultural knowledge to find teaching and research methodologies that respect and affirm their identities as First Nations people Dorais, L.J “Bilingualism and Diglossia in the Canadian Eastern Arctic.” Arctic 42 (1989): 199-207 Dorais suggests that in the Eastern Arctic, the process of colonization is demonstrated by language loss and diglossia (uneven status between languages), as a symptom of language conflict While agreeing that, at a local level, some communities are immersed in Inuktitut and Inuit culture, and that since the 70’s there has been efforts to halt the domination of English/French over Inuktitut and Inuit culture, Dorais points to understanding diglossia on a macro-social level, and understanding diglossia as part of a process of dependence and inequality He cites Prattis and Chartrand (1984: 46-47), as offering a blueprint for bolstering Inuktitut and Inuit culture at the macro (government) and micro (community) levels and enabling decentralization as a way of ensuring community input on education, language, media and culture, however, the pervasiveness of southern bureaucratic and educational structures and investment, discourage and disable the use of Inuktitut over generations, as evidenced by codeswitching, use of English between Inuktitut speakers, and use of English within Inuktitut speaking families among younger generations (under 40) Using historical examples, references to local studies and an overview of policy development with respect to bilingualism (and what led to it), Dorais ultimately argues that what exists in the Eastern Arctic is a ‘subtractive bilingualism’ whereby languages not complement each other, but result in uneven valuing and, eventually, replacement Fuzessy, Christopher “Biculturalism in Postsecondary Inuit Education.” Canadian Journal of Native Education 22.2 (1998): 201-9 Fuzessy follows Inuit students from Nunavik, QC, enrolled in their first year of post-secondary school In theory, following other studies, these students would have gained bicultural and bilingual ‘competencies’ enabled by primary cultural and linguistic immersion, Kativik School Board’s mandate to enable strong nd language and cultural learning as a consequence of strong primary cultural teachings and relevant pedagogy/curriculum, and generational changes in accepting mainstream influences and developing a way bicultural and bilingual framework between community and school Fuzessy’s main focus is whether the self-reported cultural identities of these students reflect mainstream, bicultural, or traditional Inuit identities The result of the study was that most of the students who were followed have a bicultural cultural identity; Fuzessy encourages the examination of the rate of transition from primary to secondary culture in Inuit students, and accompanying factors, to enable the development of relevant curriculum and pedagogy to support stages of students’ bicultural development Gallagher-Mackay, Kelly “Review Essay: Concilliator’s Final Report: “The Nunavut Project.” Canadian Journal of Education 30.4 (2007) This article is a review of Thomas Berger’s 2006 Conciliator’s Final Report: “The Nunavut Project,” that the goal to improve Inuit representation in the territorial government could be met through the expansion of bilingual education While Gallagher-Mackey supports Berger’s recommendation, she argues that he has not considered the “equally serious challenges of improving overall educational quality and directly tackling issues of socio-economic disadvantage,” which are also at the core of the issues facing the Nunavut education system The author provides a brief overview of Article 23 and motivations for appointing Berger to conduct such a review: namely, the realization 10 that Inuit employment is “crucially important for equity in the territory.” Berger’s report stresses that rather than continue to focus on increasing demand for Inuit employees in the public sector (the strategy to-date), the interested parties should provide the resources necessary to increase the supply of Inuit employees, turning the focus to education (with the federal government providing the bulk of the funding and the GN delivering the services) Making use of available literature, Gallagher-Mackay further asserts that Berger has oversimplified and overstated his case in the report The literature is clear that the loss of Inuktitut skills both negatively impacts individual achievement and undermines the collective identity of students Berger states in his report that the existing “early exit immersion” whereby students transition from Inuktitut classes to English classes after grade is contributing to negative educational outcomes The loss of primary language skills that results from this “too-sudden” transition is damaging to their future academic achievements Gallagher-Mackay argues that Berger’s assertions lack evidence; quoting existing literature, the author suggests that in fact socio-economic status and educational achievement of children’s parents are also important determining factors in a child’s success in either/both languages Other factors affecting success, particularly in Nunavut, include:  Access to diagnosis and treatment for learning disabilities; other health problems and issues at home;  The quality of education (particularly literacy) in the early grades before the transition takes place (She notes that in other places, this transition between languages takes place much earlier, with much fewer problems);  The rapid changes to the education system in the territory in the last 40 years from residential schools to community-based schools with Inuit teachers;  Lowered expectations for Inuit students fueled by stereotypes about Inuit learning styles, leading to a reliance on hands-on learning rather than on reading and writing (skills that are necessary for public sector employment); Notably, Gallagher-Mackay agrees with Berger that expanding bilingual education will likely lead to an increase in the number of Inuit teachers and thus the development of a bicultural education system in Nunavut, which “may be less alienating” for students and communities Ultimately, however, there must be political will to expand bilingual (and bicultural) education By focusing solely on bilingual education though, it allows the system to “avoid looking inward to the multitude of ways in which students are not having their needs met…” [and] “it defers accountability for results because it is contingent on training significant numbers of Inuit teachers.” Goldbach, Ib "Greenland: Education and Society between Tradition and Innovation." Intercultural Education 11.3 (2000): 259-71 While the ultimate purpose of this article is to describe the evolution of education policy in Greenland over the last 50-60 years and the challenge of finding a balance between tradition and innovation, Goldbach provides a comprehensive account of Greenlandic political and social history and relationship, characterized by periods of friction and periods of collaboration, between the indigenous Greelanders and their Danish colonizers Goldbach divides Greenland’s history into four periods: the precolonial period (up until the early 18th century); the colonial period (between the 1700s-1953 when Greenland became a Danish county); the industrialization period (1953-1979 during which time Greenland looked the most like Denmark); and finally the Home Rule period, starting in 1979 Over the course of these periods, and the latter two in particular, policies regarding education and language have taken both extremes and neither extreme has shown to be successful In 1953, as a Danish county, Greenland was expected to standardize its education system but it lacked the capacity to so; thus necessitating an influx of Danish teachers (with their language and culture) to Greenland In 1979, Greenlandic was re-established as the primary language of Greenland but recruiting Greelandic speaking teachers has proven to be a challenge Greenland’s solution to this problem has been the opposite of other developing countries Rather than attempting to educate as many native-speaking teachers as possible, the Home Rule government has chosen a longer-term strategy to provide high quality education to relatively few Greelander teachers The second part of the article uses the different levels of education (from elementary to tertiary) to illustrate the struggle to find a balance between tradition and innovation At the elementary and high school levels, education is delivered at the municipal level and there are schools in all communities (this has been the most expensive solution to a previously centralized – and thus residential – school system but one that has helped to maintain social and cultural customs) Drop out rates are incredibly high, especially in the “academic branch” that seeks to prepare students for university in Europe (as opposed to the vocational school branch) The school system is a hybrid of the European model with unique Greenlandic characteristics The goal of the curriculum is to provide an education that is of high quality 10 11 with comparability to the western model The two upper secondary options for students have their own challenges: the academic branch is designed to prepare students for European universities (although there is a university in Greenland now) while remaining true to traditional The vocational training option is more popular; similar to an apprenticeship model, students are attached to local enterprises for two years before spending time in the classroom This approach was developed to address very high unemployment among youth While this article was written, a new policy was in design that would offer any student in Greenland who does not continue in school or find employment after secondary school, a one-year training position to help improve their employment opportunities Despite these programs, drop out rates are still high in Greenland Goldbach concludes by arguing that drop out rates are a cultural problem; the government and the political system value education but the ordinary citizen, he says, does not Goldbach does not offer any solutions to this problem The history of Greenland, he argues, suggests that it is possible to navigate through two cultures to find a common way to address challenges In the end, he says, Greenland has chosen neither tradition, nor innovation but both Greenwood, M., S Leeuw, and T Fraser “Aboriginal Children and Early Childhood Development and Education in Canada: Linking the Past and the Present to the Future.”Canadian Journal of Native Education 30.1 (2007): Greenwood, Leeuw, and Fraser contend that Aboriginal children cannot be extricated from colonial history, and nor can they be unaffected by the socioeconomic conditions in Aboriginal communities They argue that early childhood carries political potential for transformative change that may benefit communities and nations – Aboriginal children are the future They present an overview of historic and colonial events that influenced Canadian relations with Aboriginal peoples, and a brief look at demographics contributing to current Aboriginal realities, including features that affect demographic outcomes and hide variation between communities Greenwood, Leeuw, and Fraser discuss a variety of policy directions that were designed in response to Aboriginal people’s demand for Canada to commit to the future health of Aboriginal children, such as community based childcare programs based around community parental involvement, health promotions, social support, education, nutrition, and language The policies, however, are subject to change when governments change, and Greenwood, Leeuw, and Fraser are careful to point out additional challenges, such as relevant curriculum and materials, community control, right to design programs and services that foster the development of Aboriginal children In addition, they detail specific challenges in the areas of culture and language, standards and regulations, and training and capital Hilyer, Gail M “Higher Education in the Northwest Territories” Higher Education in Canada: Different Systems, Different Perspectives Garland Studies in Higher Education, vol 11 Glen A Jones, ed New York: 1997 Hilyer focuses on Arctic College, the only substantial post-secondary institution in the Northwest Territory She places her focus on Arctic College’s separation into two post-secondary institutions, one in Fort Smith, and the other in Iqaluit, and argues that those responsible for post-secondary directions will need creativity to enable the colleges to work within a ‘complex framework’ of emerging self-determination, community based services, changing governance structures, and finite economic resources Hilyer provides background information of demographics and economic factors, post-secondary availability in the NWT, a discussion of organizations involved in research in the NWT, a history of Arctic College, and a discussion of future concerns Hicks, Jack “Education in the Canadian Arctic: What Difference has the Nunavut Government made?” Indigenous Affairs (2005) Hicks’ overview of education directions in Nunavut – Inuit cultural traditions, imposition of educational reform by the federal government (as a colonizing step), loss of culture and language resulting in cultural insecurity, political 11 12 action advocating Nunavut as a territory and the inclusion/return of Inuit values, language and voice in the education system – leads to a view of Nunavut facing internal turbulence (headquarters shifts, community disillusionment with Inuktitut teaching and directionless policies) While Hicks points to successes (increased high school graduation, and post-secondary achievement), he notes that the quality of education received in Nunavut is difficult to measure Government initiatives such as Akitsiraq Law School, Nursing, and Education training programs result in badly needed, trained, Inuit professionals, however, Hicks argues that still low numbers of high school graduates and post-secondary, trained, professionals indicates problems in the system In addition, acknowledgement of social impacts on the quality of the Nunavut education system and investment in socioeconomic initiatives and well planned education strategies needs to occur before Nunavut can be identified as solidly self-governing Hodgson-Smith, K “Seeking Good and Right Relations: Student Perspectives on the Pedagogy of Joe Duquette High School.” Master’s thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 1997 Hodgson-Smith’s thesis is an analysis and description of what makes education meaningful for students at Joe Duquette High School within the cultural framework of Good and Right Relations She begins her thesis with a personal account of her immersion in culture through family and community, and the difficulty she had finding meaning and self in mainstream high school, and the effect of this change on her She describes Joe Duquette as one of other urban aboriginal schools; its premise came about through student request and recognition that mainstream educational approaches did not address Aboriginal needs and culture Joe Duquette’s educational philosophy is based on the Medicine Wheel and Sacred Circle; it promotes and formulates aboriginal approaches to learning and teaching Hodgson-Smith details social and family supports that the school offers, as well as positive student experiences, influencing enrolment and program development Johnston, Bill, and Kimberly A Johnson "Preschool Immersion Education for Indigenous Languages: A Survey of Resources." Canadian Journal of Native Education 26.2 (2002): 107 Johnston and Johnson present examples of Indigenous language revitalization and stabilization programs at the preschool level They begin with Pezihutazizi (Upper Sioux Community in Southwestern Minnesota), as the impetus for the article The Pezihutazizi community tried several different methods (mentoring, language recording projects, programs for middle and high school students, adult education, among others) to stabilize the Dakota language Despite these programs, they decided that the only valid method would be a program that enabled individuals to be immersed in the language, to learn the language through meaningful content, and to be offered to preschool children, who were best equipped to learn the language Johnston and Johnston offer a brief overview of the questions that accompanied organizing the program, from who would teach the courses and the training they’d have, to community involvement and pedagogical considerations They place the article within the context of undergoing a literature survey in aid of setting up a preschool immersion program in an Indigenous language Their findings illuminated broad examples of successful programs, of which they offer concise historical summaries and elements of success 1) Maori and Hawaiian programs (Kohanga Reo and Punana Leo), 2) Arapho preschools in Wyoming, and 3) programs in US and Canada that offer culturally relevant teachings (but for which further detail was difficult to obtain) Johnston and Johnson also review additional preschool immersion programs, except that they are located in remote communities in which the majority of the population is indigenous, and for whom language immersion is for language maintenance, rather than revitalization In these communities, parents and children speak their language (Yu’Pik Eskimos, Alaska; Cree and Dene communities, Saskatchewan; Cree, Quebec) They note that in these communities, bilingual programs are transforming into immersion programs in order to further address fears of culture and language loss through the encroachment of English Johnston and Johnson’s present several common themes from among their reviews First, communities are increasingly choosing immersion to counteract language loss Tied to this is an appreciation that earlier immersion in the heritage language is key Second, parents and community need to play a substantial role financially, ideologically, and logistically Third, conflict within the communities regarding educational approach, framework, and rationale is common Energy must go 12 13 toward winning over opponents and explaining point of view Fourth, a combination of Indigenous and Western practices may induce conflict; supporters need to keep an open mind Fifth, it is important to keep a monolingual classroom in an immersion program Sixth, time and energy must be invested in obtaining recruiting and training teachers from among Elders and youth, and working with non-Native teachers while respecting traditional approaches (Elders) Seventh, culturally relevant materials need to be developed and used Eighth, dissemination of programs and methodologies as a way of enabling sharing among Indigenous populations, as well as counteracting or balancing Western approaches Martin, Ian Aajiiqatigiingniq- Language of Instruction, A Report to the Government of Nunavut Department of Education: Nunavut, 2000 Martin’s discussion document advocates for a strong bilingual (Inuktitut/Innuinaqtun-English) education system in Nunavut, arguing that the present model replaces the first language (Inuktitut) with an imperfectly learned nd language (English), is an infringement on individual and collective linguistic human rights of the Inuit people, does not respond to the present and future human resource needs of the territory (an educated, bilingual, selfdetermined population), and by enabling language loss contributes to economic and social problems He offers for discussion a re-commitment to the Bathurst Mandate (bilingual society by 2020), implementation of strong bilingual program (through Education Act) in schools, process of consultation on limited set of ‘strong’ models to engage communities and account for community/regional differences across Nunavut, and the elimination of ‘transition’ between languages – creating instead comprehensive primary school policies for solid bilingualism Martin advocates for increased funding, policies, and the creation of specific education organizations with roles that instigate and support educational reform Chpt 2-3 Defines language of instruction and points to a mixed system whereby depending on geographic location, some students’ 1st language is Inuktitut and 2nd language is English, and in others, English is the first language, and Innuinaqtun is the 2nd In both cases, Martin indicates that the educational system privileges English and does not give students enough immersion in their first language at school to be able to comfortably adapt to learning the nd language The system after Gr 4/5 (students transition to English language) is monolingual English-medium, not bilingual because one language is taught, and the other language becomes a subject The system as a whole is bilingual, but called an ‘early exit transitional bilingual education model’ because of the switch to English at Gr 4/5 Martin takes apart the model’s terminology, and concludes that it is flawed for a variety of reasons, including: students not learn either languages well, it denies Inuit culture and the human right for linguistic expression, denies Inuit and Canadians the ability to interact equally, with understanding of each other’s culture, contributes to cultural gaps between schools and Inuit communities, does not contribute to Nunavut’s human resource needs, and denies/fails to address the next generation of high level bilinguals (Inuit ‘intelligentia’) grounded in traditional knowledge and capable of forwarding decolonization Chpt 4-6: Martin grounds the 4th chapter in identifying questions and issues that arise out of language debate (English or Inuktitut) in the schools and the directions of policy toward Language of Instruction He specifies a number of problems and questions that arise, including: capacity, lack of policy direction, community interaction/consultation, leadership issues, culturally relevant resources and materials, and basic linguistic infrastructure and understanding Chpt discusses language shift – that in homes and school across Nunavut, English is more the dominant language, and that the system of schooling is creating subtractive bilingualism He also discusses the fact that while Inuktitut and Innuinaqtun (endangered language) are weakened, gains in comprehending the English language also have not been made Martin calls this semi-lingualism – students are not fluent or have high literacy in either language Martin suggests that rather than looking at the negative effects that the education system has contributed to, it is important to also view education historically, and, in this light, positively as a move away from strictly monolingual, assimilatist beliefs of government prior to the 1970’s The emergence of a political voice for Inuit values and languages (Tagak Curley commission) offered viable alternatives and enabled the beginning of change Martin provides a useful chart documenting the historical evolution of language of instruction in schools in the NWT 13 14 Chpt 7-9: Martin discusses Indigenous ways of enabling change, and suggests Qallunaat have meaningful ways of contributing to a stronger Inuit focused educational system ; Chapt is an overview of particular weaknesses of the exit transitional model: student’s human rights are infringed upon, and students are also impeded cognitively and linguistically All involved should be working together, in an informed way, to reverse language shift A strong model of bilingualism starts with language of instruction Chpt discusses the framework for creating a model for language of instruction; Martin references thinkers on language policy to highlight societal goals from ideological constraints of language conflicts (English/Inuktitut) (Stairs, Fettes, Silaturnamut, Alfred) Chpt 10-13 – Martin offers a historical view toward bilingualism through to the transitional model, underlines recent initiatives within current government that suggest improvement, and argues that Education Nunavut needs to commit to a strong bilingual system as well as strengthen delivery of education through key infrastructure components Martin offers options for a strong bilingual delivery, pointing to ways they can be used in Nunavut: Immersion, Maintenance Model, Two-Way, Dual Language, European Plurilingual School Chpt 14-26: Martin applies the models to communities in Nunavut, and addresses questions of language policy and linguistic duality, expanding on earlier suggestions to create organizations that are education based and that have reporting and policy functions Nungak, Zebedee “Capping the Inuktitut Formal Education System.” Inuktitut 94 (2004): 14 Nungak strongly criticizes the imposition of a Qallunaat education system on Inuit, directly contributing it to Inuit crises in self-identity and esteem, language loss, and loss of cultural and traditional knowledge necessary for survival and for community, across generations His solutions are that funding and recognition needs to be available for the development of Inuktitut curriculum, and that an Inuktitut instructor needs the resources and certification presently available for English and French One third of the year should be devoted to Inuktitut, and Inuit expertise used to deliver relevant programs; in all cases, a national funding program should be available for the purpose of strengthening Inuit schooling Okakok, Leona “Serving the Purpose of Education” Harvard Educational Review 59.4 (1989): 405 Okakok outlines the change from Inupiat Eskimo traditional ways – e.g elders as resource – as beginning with the introduction of another culture’s (Western) educational system and beliefs (Christianity) in the 1920’s, which served to displace the Inupiat educational ways and traditions In the 70’s, the Inupiat Eskimos regained control of their education system (North Slope Borough, NW Alaska) and incorporated aspects of their history and culture, striving to balance scholastic achievement on par with other US states, with cultural identity and values They found that academic success was tied to the inclusion of Inupiat Eskimo knowledge Okakok outlines, with personal examples, how cultural differences between Inupiat and Western lifestyles made learning in a Western environment a struggle; their native language was not allowed to be used, and English, in the absence of the st language, even more difficult to comprehend The negation of Inupiat culture in the Western school system made learning a struggle; Inupiat Eskimo control of education, and schooling – from infrastructure to curriculum – enabled academic achievement, survival education, and personal and cultural, lifelong, learning of Inupiat Eskimo values Innovations that Okakok offers, juxtaposing them with their valuation in Western society, are: enabling community members to act as teachers in the classroom, to foster one-one relationships and learning experiences, nurturing of individual interests, and the use of these interests toward learning other subjects and practical roles in the community, inclusion of cultural activities and encouragement of parental involvement She outlines changes – policy related and curricular – and difficult decisions that the board has made in their desire to create a viable educational system for Inupiat Eskimo students Patrick, Donna, and Perry Alexander Shearwood “The Roots of Inuktitut-Language Bilingual Education.” Canadian Journal of Native Education 19.2 (1999): 249-262 14 15 Patrick and Shearwood argue that the roots of Inuktitut-Ianguage bilingual education was the result of Inuit demand to direct the education of their children in Inuktitut and with Inuit values, Canadian and Quebec desires to assert control in the Canadian north for resource and military control (sovereignty), and an international movement toward bilingual education They trace some of the historical events that led to bilingualism in the Canadian north, including examples of successful minority and Aboriginal language programs elsewhere, and offer comments on the effects of bilingualism on future Inuit The inclusion of Inuktitut as language of instruction, alongside English and French, as language policy in Northern Quebec led to the creation of Inuit curriculum, trained teachers, and teacher training program in the 60’s – they posit this as influencing the bilingual movement in the Canadian arctic in the 70’s They also argue that while bilingualism has in some instances enabled further domination of English, it has also created positive results, such as language maintenance, greater employment opportunities for Inuit, improved relations between the school and community, increased academic performance among Inuit students, and increased pride in Inuit cultural and linguistic heritage, among others Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Volume Three: Gathering Strength Ottawa: Canada Communications Group 1996 Shearwood, Perry Alexander Literacy and Social Identity in a Nunavut Community PhD Thesis Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (Toronto): 1998 Shearwood examines the relationship between literacy and social identity in the community of Igloolik, Nunavut, explaining how literacy and social identity have been constructed through the processes of sedentarization, standardization, and credentialization He describes how people in Igloolik access resources and position themselves in social groups through education, learning the finals, or reading and writing traditionally Chpt 1-4 : Shearwood presents his study, his data, and rationales He gives an overview of the history of contact between Inuit and non-Natives, including the expansion of the Canadian state into the North He discusses sedentarization and the settlement of Inuit into communities in the 60’s and 70’s, followed by political movement by Inuit to regain control of the social processes in their communities The power of the Canadian state has been maintained, he argues, through credentialization and standardization Chapter 5: Shearwood presents an analysis of changing views of the Inuktitut language, spoken and written, as an effect of contact between Inuktitut speakers and English speakers The standardization of Inuktitut orthography had an effect on the construction of social identities, and Shearwood offers a historical account of various changes that were proposed or occurred in order to facilitate communication between the NWT government and Inuit, enable Inuktitut medium education and teacher training, and to further legitimize (through funding of Inuktitut) the Canadian government In addition, standardization was a way for Inuit to assert identity, which led to the establishment of a language commission When standardization occurred, the effect was that older Inuit were able to read material, but did not adopt the new orthography, younger bilingual Inuit learned the new system through employment or educational settings, and youth who attended school in the 1970’s were taught to read and write Inuktitut using the standard orthography Increases in time spent in school and settlements (rather than with parents and camp), created a shift in responsibility in teaching Inuktitut from the family to the school Chapter 6: Shearwood details local institutions that developed out of the contemporary mixed economy in Igloolik, and argues that community members access symbolic and material resources through participation in both domestic and cash economies The viability of the domestic economy underpins aspects of the relationship between literacy and social identity, and it is subsidized by income received from participation in the cash economy He offers an overview of companies in Igloolik, and their employment through ethnicity Shearwood discusses bilingual education model types: the transitional model (language shift, cultural assimilation and social incorporation), maintenance model (language maintenance and strengthened cultural and civil rights identities) and the enrichment model (language development, cultural pluralism and social autonomy), as a way of looking at 15 16 social construction and influencing participation in the mixed economy, and relating educational policy to Igloolik and the North Problems that impede language instruction are lack of trained teachers (Inuit or non-native trained in Inuktitut) and culturally relevant curriculum, as well as a dual value system for educational process that correspond to the domestic and cash economies – for example, participation in one to the exclusion of the other The challenge, Shearwood claims, is promoting respect for both systems Shearwood analyses aspects of the cash and domestic economy, from statistical information to local employment He links credentials to participation in the wage economy; this results in the development of ethnic stratification in the division of labour that privileges non-Natives disproportionately While some Inuit choose or are obligated to participate in the domestic economy, the cash economy still subsidizes it; they need to be able to access the resources in both to sustain themselves Gradually increasing education for younger Inuit may resolve stratification and maintain stability within social interactions, and Shearwod identifies ways, within the models of education, literacy, and the credentials of literacy, of legitimizing employment as well as transferring skills from the school to the workplace and other settings in the community (e.g organizations) Shearwood argues that education (through literate practices) validates the both the social system in communities and the authority of the Canadian state The social system enables variable participation in both the domestic and cash economy Chpt 7-8: Shearwood discusses how literacy practices (reading and writing) are related to group membership Literacy practices break down into basic categories: getting an education (in English), leaming the finals (in Inuktitut), and reading and writing traditionally (in Inuktitut) They assist individuals to access resources in the community, as enabled by social identity and sedentarization, standardization and credentialization Shearwood uses ethnicity and age groupings as elements of social identity that relate to literacy, in turn, ethnicity and the age groupings he uses are affected differently by sedentarization, standardization and credentialization For example, elders have access to resources in the domestic economy through authority developed by knowledge, alliances, and kinship structures; younger Inuit access resources but are constrained by the power of the elder Inuit The social identity of the elder Inuit is developed through the domestic economy, and also the ability to read and write in Inuktitut Resources in the cash economy are accessed through education and learning the finals, which leads to participation in wage labour or participation in a community organization that gives a stipend Old Inuit access resources through reliance on kin structures Shearwood links the relationship of literacy, conceptualized as getting an education, learning the finals, and reading and writing traditionally, to social identity within groups of older Inuit, active biliterates, other younger Inuit, or non-Natives Elders, writing traditionally, participate in institutions that validate these methods of communication and enable them to access resources in the domestic economy and also have access to the wage economy They can communicate about Inuit life and ways through younger Inuit who are biliterate Active biliterates, who are educated, have learned the finals, and are also bilingual, are intermediaries for elders, and thus legitimize the elder’s experiences and Inuit identities The biliterates are able to participate in the wage economy, but also participate politically – as intermediaries for elders, they can claim for their own the Inuit identity that the elders express and remember As such, they have fought dispossession, and because of their levels of literacy, have achieved a land claim settlement, as well as influenced educational and social processes for their communities They have access to material and symbolic resources through their biliteracy, but as ‘bridges’ between two generations, are pressured in their responsibilities to both Younger Inuit have learned English writing and reading in school Inuktitut may be more difficult to write They’re able to access resources in Igloolik in diverse ways, and have the potential to become biliterate/bilingual through continued education or further immersion in Inuktitut Non-natives are able to participate in the wage economy through education levels, however, changes in social identities as relate to literacy practices will likely find employment equalizing as Inuit participate in credentialization, and the literacy practices that go with it Shearwood suggests that research be carried out with respect to how linguistics conditions language planning decisions in the context of state formation He also suggests that longitudinal monitoring of how education relates to ethnicity and employment would be useful in relation to understanding social mobility and equality, as well as participation in both cash and domestic economies How research and education can be integrated in the North is also of importance, as a way of returning research outcomes to community settings 16 17 Taylor, Donald M., and Stephen C Wright “Do Aboriginal students benefit from education in their heritage language? Results from a ten-year program of Research in Nunavik.” Canadian Journal of Native StudiesCanadian Journal of Native Studies 23.1 (2003): 1-24 Taylor and Wright summarize the results of a 10 year research project, instigated by the Kativik School Board and designed to assess the outcomes of the Kativik’s bilingual program The current status of Inuttitut in Nunavut, intellectual potential of students, the affect of the bilingual format on Nunavik student’s language learning and impact of the bilingual format on self-esteem guided the research Results indicate that Inuktitut is strong in Nunavik, but communities are more fluent than literate, and that English is a ‘link language’, the preferred nd language for both French and Inuit Younger generations are increasingly more fluent in English, at the expense of their knowledge of Inuktitut The challenge for Kativik is to replace a ‘subtractive bilingualism’ with an ‘additive bilingualism’ that increases students’ skills in Inuttitut Testing for intelligence in Inuit students showed that rather than questioning intelligence, a strategy of support and appropriate classroom experiences from parents, community leaders, and educators would promote educational success There were significant academic and linguistic advantages for children entering Kindergarten immersed in Inuttitut They developed a level of language skill that allowed them to use Inuttitut to solve complex mental problems; children in the English or French programs were able to perform simply in English or French, but fell behind in their use of Inuttitut The corollary is that solid first language instruction and comprehension will enable the children to adapt more easily to the nd language Finally, Inuit students enrolled in Inuttitut demonstrated positive self esteem toward themselves and Inuit as a group; those Inuit students enrolled in the French or English program showed preferences for White students over other Inuit students and declining levels of positive self esteem Taylor and White conclude that the program of Inuttitut instruction from K-3 is successful, and that training Inuit teachers and developing culturally relevant curriculum was well founded; the next steps for the Kativik School Board is to instigate a program that extends beyond the early years of school Taylor, Donald M and Stephen C Wright “Language Attitudes in a Multilingual Northern Community.” The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 9.1 (1989): 85-119 Taylor and Wright argue that in Northern communities a new social order is evolving They examine how questions of language and culture are entwined with economic, political, technological, and educational aspects of life in Northern communities and observe that an important challenge is to develop appropriate policies that strengthen Inuit culture and work to erase impacts and strongholds of colonialism They surveyed Anglophone, Francophone, and Inuit residents in the largest community in Nouveau Quebec, which has 75% Inuit, 15% Francophones, and 10% Anglophones to determine language attitudes, intercultural/group views, and threats to Inuit language and culture Taylor and Wright’s pivotal question centres on type of role that Inuit culture and language will play in the North of the future The challenge, they note, is to reconcile ideological differences (assimilation vs language and cultural immersion) and come to an understanding about how culture affects the interactions between groups in the changing/future North Their main focus is on how language is an effective way of studying intergroup and cultural relations In both transparent and more internal ways, language can cement unity among ethnic groups and convey respect among groups of different ethnicities, as well as enable power and status, and thus affect policy and enable accommodation in areas of education, government, and media Three interrelated themes are used to categorize the study, each with their own set of questions: Language Attitudes (covering linguistic fluency, intergroup communication, domestic, community, and institutional use and the general importance within the community); Intergroup Attitudes (extent of contact between community groups and degree of ‘getting along’); and Threats to Inuit Language and Culture (community’s views on bilingualism, interest from younger generation in heritage language, and role of school in language teaching) Taylor and Wright’s exploration into Language Attitudes identified that Inuttitut use is strong; it is the language of choice in the home and considered important, both by Inuit and Anglophones, for the future The school, with family and community, is seen by all cultures as having an important role in the continued learning of Inuttitut English is the language spoken by all three cultural groups, and it is seen as important to the life of the community, especially in a professional context Taylor notes (also citing 17 18 Dorais), that research needs to be done with respect to language in the workplace, but that a concern may be that English gains an elevated prestige professionally, subordinating Inuttitut The main finding of Intergroup Attitudes underscored the results of Language Attitudes – Anglophones occupy a central position – typically Inuit and Anglophones are mutually attracted Data collected to study Threats to Inuit Language and Culture indicate that all three groups were uncertain whether future generations would maintain interest in the Inuit language and way of life, but felt that the school had an important role to play in the maintenance of language In addition, the community felt strongly that bilingualism is possible and that Anglophone and Francophone children should learn Inuttitut, as well as their own language There was considerable support for early language promotion as a way of ensuring future success Taylor and Wright further conclude that the community displays ambivalence arising out of feelings of optimism and disquiet Optimism is a result of language strength, positive feelings toward bilingual possibilities, educational policies toward first language (Inuttitut) in early school years, and strong ties with Anglophones Disquiet is a product of the central position of the Anglophone community and the strength of English in the workplace and among a younger (