Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data International handbook of bilingualism and bilingual education. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Bilingualism. 2. Education, Bilingual. I. Paulston, Christina Bratt, 1932 P115.I58 1988 404′.2 87263 ISBN 0313244847 (lib. bdg.: alk. paper) British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available. Copyright © 1988 by Christina Bratt Paulston All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 87263 ISBN: 0313244847 First published in 1988 Greenwood Press, Inc. 88 Post Road West, Westport, Connecticut 06881 Printed in the United States of America CONTENTS PREFACE ix 1. Bilingualism and Bilingual Education: An Introduction Christina Bratt Paulston 1 2. Languages of the World Sarah Grey Thomason 17 3. The Language Situation in Arabic Speaking Nations Alaa Elgibali 47 4. Bilingualism and Linguistic Separatism in Belgian Schools Elizabeth Sherman Swing 63 5. Bilingualism in Bolivia Xavier Albó 85 6. The Celtic Languages in the British Isles Nancy C. Dorian 109 7. Language 141 in Native Education in Canada Barbara Burnaby 8. The Canadian Second Language Immersion Program Fred Genesee 163 9. Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in the People's Republic of China James H.Y. Tai 185 v 10. Patterns of Bilingualism in East Africa (Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania) Carol Myers Scotton 203 11. Linguistic Minorities and the Mother Tongue Debate in England Linguistic Minorities 225 Project 12. Societal Bilingualism and Bilingual Education: A Study of the Indian Situation R. N. Srivastava 247 13. Language Planning and Language Acquisition: The "Great Leap" in the Hebrew Revival Moshe Nahir 275 14. Creole 297 English and Education in Jamaica Dennis R. Craig 15. Public Bilingual Education in Mexico Nancy Modiano 313 16. Aspects of Bilingualism in Morocco Abdelâli Bentahila 329 17. Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in Nigeria Adebisi Afolayan 345 18. Bilingualism in Paraguay Graziella Corvalán 359 19. Bilingualism in Peru Alberto Escobar 379 20. Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in Singapore S. Gopinathan 391 405 21. Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in a Divided South African Society Douglas Young 22. Bilingual Education in Soviet Central Asia M. Mobin Shorish 429 23. Bilingual Education in Spain Miguel Siguan 449 24. Bilingualism and Education of Immigrant Children and Adults in Sweden Kenneth Hyltenstam and Lenore Arnberg 475 vi 25. Language Contact and Bilingualism in Switzerland Gottfried Kolde 515 26. Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in the United States Richard Ruiz 539 27. Some Aspects of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education vii in Zaire Lufuluabo Mukeba 561 GLOSSARY 579 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ESSAY 581 BIBLIOGRAPHY 583 AUTHOR INDEX 585 LANGUAGE INDEX 595 SUBJECT INDEX 599 ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS 601 PREFACE The International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education consists of twentyseven chapters. The first chapter, "Bilingualism and Bilingual Education: An Introduction," presents a theoretical framework of the contextual situations of language maintenance and shift in which we find bilingualism and bilingual education. The second chapter, "Languages of the World," presents the basic facts about languages and language families in the world and where they are located. The chapter spells out the range of possibilities of languages in contact. The other twentyfive chapters are case studies of bilingualism/multilingualism within nationstates, the norm around the world in spite of the nineteenth century's European model of one nationone language. (In today's Europe, only two countriesIceland and Portugalare monolingual.) Because some of the chapters contain fairly technical vocabulary from linguistics and the social sciences, a glossary has been included. The book closes with some suggestions for further reading. The case study chapters are arranged in alphabetical order and were selected to represent specific situations from all corners of the world. In Europe, Belgium is a trilingual country with considerable tension (and legislation) accompanying the language contact situation. In contrast, Switzerland, with its four official languages, presents a much more peaceful situation. In the United Kingdom, to the north and west, we find the Celtic languages slowly dying out, while the urban centers of England face the uneasy educational problems of a second (and third) generation of immigrants. Socialist Sweden has an easier time with her educational policies for immigrant children. And in postFranco Spain we find a reemergence of minority languages, with Catalan in a strong position of language maintenance beyond what one might have expected. ix In the Americas, we have a chapter on the American Indian situation in Canada (similar to that in the United States and so not duplicated) which is basically one of assimilation and language death or language maintenance through physical isolation. Owing primarily to Canadian legislation visà vis language, we find parents resorting to a very unusual educational experiment, now established as routine, the FrenchEnglish immersion programs. The chapter on the United States reveals, inter alia, the different course of educational programs for children of colonized groups compared with those of the European immigrants, who have completely assimilated. In Latin America, the chapters on Mexico, Bolivia, and Peru present another form of colonization from the North American, that of colonization by men without women, and the subsequent course of mothertongue diversity, which is basically one of slow shift motivated by economic necessity. In contrast, Paraguay presents a picture of maintenance of Guarani with Spanish bilingualism, rooted in the functional distribution of the languages. Finally, in the Caribbean, Jamaica is our one case study of a creole continuum and its educational problems. The Arabicspeaking countries have their own characteristics. The chapter on the linguistic situation in Arabicspeaking nations is the only chapter that describes in detail the linguistic features of a bilingual situation. Stable Arabic diglossia is a very poorly understood phenomenon and is frequently given to misunderstanding and misinformation. The chapter on Morocco provides a case study of Arabic diglossia and Berber bilingualism. China, India, and Soviet Central Asia are examples of enormous, multilingual nations with considerable language problems, which have been submitted to conscious efforts of language planning. Only China can claim to have been successful in its planning programs. Singapore, a nationcity, is another success story with four official languages but, unusually, without any strife among linguisticethnic groups. The extremely multilingual sub Sahara Africa provides four case studies. The three nations of East AfricaKenya, Tanzania, and Ugandaand Nigeria in western Africa all have retained the ex colonial English as a national language. Only Tanzania has been successful in implementing a native African tongue, Kiswahili, as a national language in common usage. Zaire (with Morocco), our example of a Francophone African state, shows a similar pattern to that of the other African countries. The chapter on the Republic of South Africa shows how the educational policies and language borders of ethnic minority groups are used to shore up the tragic policy of apartheid in an officially bilingual country. No collection of case studies on bilingualism would be complete without a chapter on Israel. The successful revival of Hebrew is a unique occurrence in the world. There have been many attempts at language revivals, Irish, for example, but they have invariably failed. The historical account of the revival of Hebrew and the sociocultural conditions under which it took place make the case of Israel uniquely interesting, and the chapter primarily addresses itself to the problem of explaining the success of Hebrew. x Each chapter stands alone and can be read simply for the information it contains. If the chapters are considered together, however, trends and generalizations of societal bilingualism emerge, and this handbook with its case studies lends itself very well to theory testing. Christina Bratt Paulston xi Tswana, 407 Turkic, 430 Turkish, 9, 233 Tzotzil, 324 Ukranian, 165, 227, 233, 278 Urdu, 118, 206, 229 30, 249 50, 252, 260, 408 Uru, 87 Valencian (Catalan), 461 Venda, 407 Vietnamese, 230 Vlaams. See 598 Flemish Welsh, 109 10, 115, 122 23, 125 Wu, 186 Xhosa, 407, 410, 413 Xiang, 186 Yi, 186 Yiddish, 5, 9, 275 92 Yoruba, 349, 352 53, 357 Yuc, 186 Yuko, 186 Zoque, 324 Zulu, 407 8, 410, 413, 425 SUBJECT INDEX Accommodation, 255, 548 Adult education, 488, 491 93 Annexation, 4, 463, 547 Apartheid, 405 26 Arabization, 51, 334, 338 41 Arabophilia, 51 Assimilation, 4, 8, 70, 75, 116, 186, 235, 255, 409, 475, 517, 546 Bidialectalism, 48 49 Bilingual education: immersion, 157, 163 81, 285, 371, 465, 553 ; delayed, 174 75; double, 176 77; early partial, 175 ; early total, 171, 174 75; late, 174 76; submersion in, 148 ; transitional, 264, 369 71, 501 2, 551 52, 554 55 Bilingual education; dual medium, 71, 73, 75, 79, 420, 452, 551, 554 55; maintenance, 395, 502 4, 552, 555 ; missionary efforts, 100 101, 146, 207 8, 347, 364, 371, 566 68 Bilingualism: additive vs. substractive, 341, 553 ; cognition, 72 73, 529 ; complementary, 69 ; elitist vs. folk, 252 53; institutional, 165, 563 ; mass, 565 ; monoliterate, 306 ; replacive, 69, 341, 553 ; stable, 71, 257, 546 Codeswitching, 53, 219, 253, 261, 299, 337 Codification. See Standardization Colonialism, 117 Colonization, 4, 88, 347, 561, 563 Contact language. See Lingua franca Continuum, 51 54, 66, 254, 305 Convergence, 256 57 Creole(s), 256, 297 310 Cultural pluralism, 251, 257, 393, 561 Diffusion of linguistic traits, 255 Diglossia, 48, 51 55, 58, 256, 349, 353, 356, 454, 461, 462, 476, 520, 526 28, 545 46 ESL (English as a Second Language), 149 50, 235, 237, 306 Ethnic groups, 1 13, 540 43, 546 49, 562 65 Ethnicity, 7 9, 561 Ethnic language, 544 46, 565 66 Ethnic movement, 7, 9 10, 11 Ethnic relations, 1 13, 546 49, 562 65 Exogamy (intermarriage), 4, 8, 51, 188, 191, 255, 566 Foreign language, 544 46 Functional distribution of languages (bil 599 ingualism with diglossia), 54 55, 68 69 , 93, 96, 98, 215, 218 19, 234, 253 Immersion programs. See Bilingual education Immigrants, students, 150 Imperialism, 68 Integration, 257, 351 55, 382 Internal colonization, 384 Internationalism, 189 Islam, 47 59 Language: attitudes, 168, 226, 279 80, 283 84, 300 301, 338, 546, 600 571 72; choice, 2, 203 22; loyalty, 97 98, 229, 258 ; shift, 3 13, 48, 51, 58, 65, 72, 89 90, 120, 127, 130, 135 36, 142, 190, 192 93, 217, 242, 254 55, 257, 451, 520, 540 43, 546, 572 73; spread, 3, 57, 198, 573 ; territorial, 73 Language: death, 3, 99, 153, 543 ; revival, 119 22, 127, 176 77, 275 92 Language: maintenance, 3 13, 67, 130, 135, 192 93, 218, 254 55, 451, 468, 540 42, 546, 572 73; planning and engineering, 57, 59, 65, 105, 124, 208, 258 62, 275 92, 338 41, 388, 395 97, 401, 414 16; policies, 244, 257, 269 70 Lingua franca(s), 3, 88, 198, 200, 203 4, 207 8, 212, 216, 218, 234, 253, 255, 298, 349, 371, 392, 406, 413, 564 Literacy, efforts toward, 103, 105, 261 62 LWC (Language[s] of Wider Communication) , 3, 12, 51, 249 Medium of instruction, 2, 147 48, 155 57, 175 77, 196, 208 9, 210 11, 213, 262 65, 284 86, 334, 414. See also Bilingual education: dual medium Mesolect, 299 300, 302, 304 5 Migrants, migrant workers, 77, 391 Migration, 4, 8, 51, 89, 186, 189, 227 28, 231 34, 476 ; in, 115, 123 ; out, 119, 127, 130, 136 Minorities, linguistic, 76, 225 45, 247 65 Miscegenation. See Exogamy Mother tongue teaching, 234 39, 262 65 Nationalism, 7, 10 12, 117, 209 10, 278 81, 351 52, 354, 463 Nationalists, 72 73 Native peoples, Native Americans, 141 58, 163, 165 PanArabism, 56 Penal laws, 111 12 Pidgin(s), 35 38, 207, 252, 256, 297, 408 Preschools, bilingual, 489, 498 500 Principle of Proportional Representation ( Switzerland), 522 23 Racism, 227, 242 Radio schools, 103 4, 212 Retention, 255. See also Language: maintenance Separatism, 11, 73 76, 79, 168 69 SESD (Teaching Standard English as a Second Dialect), 306 Slavery, 194 Standard, standard language, 49, 260 Standardization, language, 124 25, 191, 197 98, 260 Style variation (functional variation), 53 55 Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), 103 Territorial Principle ( Switzerland), 521 22, 529 Tribal languages, 249, 561 Urbanization, 8 ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS AFOLAYAN, ADEBISI. Professor, Department of English Language, University of Ife, Ile Ife, Nigeria. ALBÓ, XAVIER. Professor, Centro de Investigacion y Promocion del Campesinado, La Paz, Bolivia. ARNBERG, LENORE. Research Associate, University of Stockholm, Institute of Linguistics, Department of Research on Bilingualism, Stockholm, Sweden. BENTAHILA, ABDELÂLI. Professor, Department of English, Faculty of Arts, University Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco. BURNABY, BARBARA. Burnaby Language Consulting, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. CORVALÁN, GRAZIELLA. Directora Adjunta, Centro Paraguayo de Estudios Sociologicos, Asunción, Paraguay. CRAIG, DENNIS R. Professor of Language, University of the West Indies, Faculty of Education, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica. DORIAN, NANCY C. Professor of Linguistics, Department of Anthropology, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa., USA. ELGIBALI, ALAA. Instructor, Language Center, Kuwait University, Kuwait. 601 ESCOBAR, 602 ALBERTO. Professor, Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima, Peru. GENESEE, FRED. Associate Professor, Department of English as a Second Language, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. GOPINATHAN, S. Professor, Department of Comparative Studies, Institute of Education, Republic of Singapore. HYLTENSTAM, KENNETH. Professor, University of Stockholm, Institute of Linguistics, Department of Research on Bilingualism, Stockholm, Sweden. KOLDE, GOTTFRIED. Professor, Departement des langues et litterature allemandes, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland. LINGUISTIC MINORITIES PROJECT: Xavier Couilland, Marily Martin Jones, Verity Saifullah Khan, Anna Morawska, Euan Reid, Greg Smith. University of London, Institute of Education, London, UK. MODIANO, NANCY. Professor, Escuela Desarrollo Regional La Cabana, Chiapas, Mexico. MUKEBA, LUFULUABO. Instructor, Teacher Training College, Kinshasa, Zaire. NAHIR, MOSHE. Professor, Department of Near Eastern and Judaic Studies, and the Department of Linguistics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. PAULSTON, CHRISTINA BRATT. Professor of Linguistics, Department of General Linguistics, University of Pittsburgh,00 Pittsburgh, Pa., USA. RUIZ, RICHARD. Assistant Professor, Educational Foundation and Administration, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz., USA. SCOTTON, CAROL MYERS. Professor, Linguistics Program, University of South Carolina, Columbia, S.C. SHORISH, M. MOBIN. Associate Professor of Comparative Education and Economics of Education, Department of Educational Policy Studies, University of Illinois of Urbana Champaign, Champaign, Ill., USA. SIGUAN, MIGUEL. Professor, Instituto de Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain. SRIVASTAVA, 603 R. N. Professor and Head, Department of Linguistics, University of Dehli, Delhi, India. SWING, ELIZABETH SHERMAN. Associate Professor of Education, St. Joseph's University, Philadelphia, Pa., USA. TAI, JAMES H.Y. Associate Professor of Chinese and of Linguistics, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Ill., USA. THOMASON, SARAH GREY. Professor of Linguistics, Department of General Linguistics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa., USA. YOUNG, DOUGLAS. Professor, Department of Education, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Republic of South Africa. [This page intentionally left blank.] 604 [This page intentionally left blank.] 605 [This page intentionally left blank.] 606